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A SYLLABUS 

OF 



The Revolutionary 

AND 

Napoleonic Era 



THEODORE F COLLIER 



A SYLLABUS 



OF 



The Revolutionary 



AND 



Napoleonic Era 



BY 



THEODORE F. COLLIER, Ph. D. 

BROWN UNIVERSITY 



1916 



<^ 



COPYRIGHT, 1916, 

BY 
THEODORE F. COLLIER 



JUL 19 1916 
©C!.A4 3r)ino 



The Kensmobe Presb 
Pkovidenok, R. I. 






Contents 



Select List of Books 



The Old Regime 

I. The Monarchy 

TI. Finances; Army; Law and Courts 

III. Cleric and Noble 

IV. Townsman and Peasant 



The Spirit op Revolution and Reform 

V. The Revolution in Thought 

VI. Progress under Absolutism ; the Benevolent Despots 

VII. France under Louis XV; Impotent Despotism 

VIII. France under Louis XVI ; Bankruptcy and Abortive Reform 



The Revolution 

IX. The Estates-General 
X. Collapse of the Old Regime 
XI. The Constitution of 1791 
XII. The Legislative Assembly 
XIII. Jacobin and Girondin 
XIV. The Terror 
XV. The Revolution at War with Europe 

The Rise op Napoleon Bonaparte 

XVI. The Directory 

XVII. The Conquest of Italy and the Rise of Bonaparte 
XVIII. The Consulate 
XIX. Bonaparte and the Second Coalition 

The Empire 

XX. The Zenith of Military Power, 1803-1807 
XXI. Organization of the Empire 
XXII. The Napoleonic Empire and the Continental System 

XXIII. The Revolt of the Nations 

XXIV. The War of Liberation 
XXV. Waterloo 



Select List of Books 



General Histories 

Bourne, H. E.: The Revolutionary Period in Europe (1914) 

Cambridge Modern History, vols, vi, viii, ix (1902-12) 

Duruy, V.: History of France (1896) 

Dyer, T. H., and Hassall, A.: History of Modern Europe, vols, iv, v (ISOl) 

Hassall, A.: The Balance of Poiver, 1715-1789 (1896) 

Kitchin, G. W.: History of France; 3 v. (1896-1908) 

Lavisse, E.: Histoire de France, vols, viii, ix (1909, 1910) 

Lavisse, E., and Rambaud, A., eds.: Histoire Genirale, vols, vii, viii, ix 

(1894-1901) 
Martin, H.: History of France; 3 v. (1877-82) 
Rambaud, A.: Histoire de la civilisation franQaise; 2 v. (1897-98) 
Robinson, J. H., and Beard, C. A.: The Development of Modern Europe; 

2 V. (1907-08) 
Rose, J, H.: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era (1898) 
Stephens, H. M.: Revolutionary Europe, 1789-1815; 6th ed. (1904) 



Collections of Source Material 

Anderson, F. M.: Constitutions and other Select Documents illustrative of 

the History of France, 1789-1901 (1904) 
Reich, E.: Select Documents illustrative of mediaeval and modern History 

(1905) 
Robinson, J. H., and Beard, C. A.: Readings in modern European History; 

2 V. (1908, 1909) 
Schilling, M.: Quellenhuch zur Geschichte der Neuzeit (1912) 
University of Pennsylvania, History Department, ed.: Translations and 

Reprints ; 6 v. (1897- 1900) 



Atlases, etc. 

Putzger, F. W.: Historischer Schulatlas, Baldamus and Schwabe, eds. 

(1902) 
Shepherd, W. R.: Historical Atlas (1911) 
Parmentier, A.: Album Historique; 4 v. (1897-1907) 



The Old Regime 
General: 

Ch^rest, A.: La chute de I'ancien regime; 3 v. (1884-86) 

Lacroix, P.: The Eighteenth Century, its institutions, customs and cos- 

tum.es (1876) 
Lowell, E. J.: The Eve of the French Revolution (1900) 
MacLehose, S. H.: The Last Days of the French Monarchy (1901) 
Martin, H.: The Decline of the French Monarchy; 2 v. (1866) 
Michelet, J.: Histoire de France, vols, xv-xvii (1852-67) 
Perkins, J. B.: France under the Regency (1892) 

France under Louis XV; 2 v. (1897) 

Rocquain, F.: L^esprit revolutionaire avant la revolution (1878) 

Taine, H.: The Ancient Regime (1896) 

de Tocqueville, A. C: L^ancien regime et la revolution; 2nd ed. (1856) 



Special: 

Babeau, A.: Les artisans et les domestiques d^autrefois (1886) 

Les Bourgeois d' autrefois (1886) 

Paris en 1789 (1889) 

La province sous Vancien rdgime-, 2 v. (1894) 

La vie rurale dans Vancienne France (1885) 

La village sous Vancien regime (1891) 

La ville sous Vancien regime; 2 v. (1884) 

Campan, Mme. J. L. H.: Memoirs; 2 v. (1900) 

Champion, E.: La France d^apres les cahiers de 1789 (1904) 

du Hausset, Mme. N.: Memoirs of the Courts of Louis XV and XVI; 2 v. 

(1899) 
Genlis, Comtesse de: Memoirs; 8 v. (1825-26) 
Goncourt, E. L.: Portraits intimes du dix-Jiuitieme siecle (ed. 1908) 

Madame de Pompadour (ed. 1888) 

La femme au dix-huitieme siecle (1862) 

Hall, E. B.: The Women of the Salons (1901) 

Levasseur, E.: La population frangaise . . . avant 1789; 8 v. (1889-92) 

'■ Histoire des classes ouvrieres . . . avant 1789; 2 v. (1900-01) 

Loutchisky, J.: L^etat des classes agricoles en France d la veille de la 

Revolution (1911) 
Perkins, J. B.: France in the American Revolution (1911) 
Sainte-Beuve, C. A.: Portraits of the eighteenth century; 2 v. (1905) 
Stourm, R.: Les finances de Vancien regime et de la revolution; 2 v. (1885) 
de Tocqueville, A. C: The State of Society in France before the Revolu- 
tion of 1789 (1888) 
Young, Arthur: Travels in France during the years 1787, 1788, 1789; 
ed. Betham-Edwards (1906) 



The Philosophers and Economists 

Chuquet, A. M.: J. J. Rousseau (1901) 

Compayre, G.: Jean Jacques Rousseau and education from nature (1907) 
Hudson, W. H.: Rousseau and naturalism in life and thought (1903) 
Montesquieu, Baron de: The Spirit of Laws; tr. Nugent; 2 v. (1899) 
Morley, J,: Diderot and the Encyclopaedists; 2 v. (1878) 

Rousseau; 2 v, (1873) 

Voltaire (1872) 

Rousseau, J. J.: Emile; ed. Payne (1893) 

The Social Contract; ed. Tozer (1905) 

Say, J.: Turgot (1891) 

Sorel, A.: Montesquieu (1888) 

Voltaire, F. M. A.: Works; ed. Smollett; 42 v. (1901) 

White, A. D.: Seven Great Statesmen (1910) 



The Revolution 



General: 



Acton, J. E. Dalberg, Baron Acton: Lectures on the French Revolution 

(1910) 
Aulard, A.: The French Revolution; tr. from 3d ed. ; 4 v. (1910) 

Les grands orateurs de la revolution (1914) 

Belloc, H.: Highlights of the French Revolution (1915) 

Buchez, P. J. B., and Roux, P. C: Histoire par lementaire de la revolution 

frangaise; 40 v. (1834-38) 
Carlyle, T.: The French Revolution; ed. Rose; 2 v. (1902) 
Gibbs, P. H.: Men and Women of the French Revolution (1906) 
Henderson, E. H.: 8ym,hol and Satire in the French Revolution (1912) 



von Hoist, H. E.: The French Revolution- 2 v. (1894) 

Kropotkin, P. A.: The great French Revolution (1909) 

Legg, L. G. W.: Select Documents . . . of the French Revolution ; 2 v. (1905) 

Mahan, A. T.: The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution 

and Empire; 2 v. (1892) 
Mathews, S.: The French Revolution (1901) 
Michelet, J.: Histoire de la revolution franQaise; 2 v. (1861) 
Oncken, W.: Zeitalter der Revolution, des Kaiserreichs und der Befrei- 

ungsJtriege; 2 v. (1884, 1889) 
Rose, J. H.: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era; 6th ed. (1907) 
Sorel, A.: L^ Europe et la revolution franQaise; 8 v. (1885-1904) 
Stephens, H. M.: History of the French Revolution; 2 v. (1886-1891) 
The Principal Speeches of the Statesmen and Orators of 

the French Revolution; 2 v. (1892) 
von Sybel, H.: History of the French Revolution; 4 v. (1867-69) 
Taine, H.: The French Revolution; 3 v. (1878-85) 
Thiers, L. A.: History of the French Revolution; 4 v. (1842) 

Special: ■ ........ 



Barthou, L.: Mirabeau (1913) 
Belloc, H.: Robespierre (1908) 

Danton (1899) 

Eire, E.: The Diary of a Citizen of Paris during the Terror; 2 v. (1896) 

ten Brink, J.: Robespierre and the Red Terror (1899) 

Burke, E.: Reflections on the French Revolution (ed. Payne, 1897) 

Campan, Mme.: Memoires; 3 v. (1822; Eng. tr., 2 v., 1900) 

Clapham, J. H.: The Abbe Sieyes (1912) 

Dowden, E.: The French Revolution and English Literature (1897) 

Goncourt, E.: Histoire de la societe franQaise pendant la revolution (1854) 

Hazen, C. D.: Contemporary American Opinion of the French devolution 

(1897) 
Lamartine, A.: History of the Girondists; 3 v. (1847-48) 
Laprade, W. T.: England and the French Revolution (1909) 
Lenotre, G. (pseud.): The Tribunal of the Terror (1909) 

Paris Revolutionnaire; 4 v. (1901-10) 

Lomenie, L. L.: Les Mirabeau; 2 v. (1879) 

Mirabeau, H. G. R., Cte. de: Memoirs; 4 v. (1835-36) 

Sciout, L.: Le Directoire; 2 v. (1895) 

Sloane, W. M.: The French Revolution and Religious Reform (1901) 

Stael-Holstein, Mme. de: Considerations on . . . the French Revolution; 

2 V. (1818) 
Ternaux, M.: Histoire de la terreur; 8 v. (1868-81) 



Napoleon and the Empire 



General: 



Abrantes, Duchesse d': Memoirs of Napoleon, his court and family; 2 v. 
(1895) 

Bourrienne, L. A. F.: Memoirs of Napoleoyi Bonaparte; 4 v. (1836) 

Broadley, A. M.: Napoleon in Caricature; 2 v. (1911) 

Caulaincourt, A. A. L., Marquis de: Napoleon and his times; 2 v. (1838) 

Dodge, T. A.: Napoleon; 4 v. (1904-07) 

Fisher, H. A. L.: Studies in Napoleonic Statesmanship (1903) 

Bonapartism (1908) 

Fournier, A.: Napoleon I; 2 v. (1911) 

Hillis, W. J.: A metrical history of the life and times of Napoleon Bona- 
parte (1896) 



Lanfrey, P.: The history of Napoleon the First-, 2nd ed. ; 4 v. (1886) 
Lenormand, M. A, A.: Memoires . . . de Vimpiratrice Josephine ; 2 v. (1820) 
Lenz, M.: Napoleon (1907) 
Napoleon: Gorrespondance ; 32 v. (1858-70) 

Memoirs . . . dictated at St. Helena; 7 v, (1823-24) 

A Selection from the Letters and Despatches ; ed. Bingham ; 3 v. 

(1884) 

Napoleon'' s Addresses {selections) ; ed. Tarbell (1897) 

The Gorsican ( ' 'A Diary of Napoleon^ s life in his own words^^); 

ed. Johnston (1910) 
Pasquier, E. T.: History of my own time] 8 v. (1893-94) 
Remusat, Mme. de: Memoirs (1880) 
Rose, J. H.: Life of Napoleon I; 2 v. (1901-02) 

The Personality of Napoleon (1912) 

Napoleonic Studies (1904) 

Segur, Cte. de: Memoirs; 3 v. (1825) 

Sloane, W. M.: Life of Napoleon Bonaparte; 4 v. (1896) 
Talleyrand-Perigord, C. M. de: Memoirs; 5 v. (1891-92) 
Thiers, L. A.: History of the Consulate and Empire; 20 v. (1845-62) 

Special: 

Browning, 0.: Napoleon, the first phase (1905) 

Burton, R. G.: From Boulogne to Austerlitz (1912) 

Chuquet, A, M.: La Jeunesse de Napoleon; 3 v. (1897-99) 

Ducrest, G.: Memoirs of the court of the Empress Josephine ; 3 v. (1900) 

George, H. B.: Napoleon^ s Invasion of Russia (1899) 

von der Goltz, C, Freiherr; Jena to Eylau (1913) 

Goodrich, F. B.: The Gourt of Napoleon (1857) 

Henderson, E. F.: BlUcher and the Uprising of Prussia against Napoleon 

(1911) 
Houssaye, H.: 1815; 3 v. (1905) 

Las Cases, E.: Memorial de Sainte Helene; 4 v. (1823) 
Levy, A.: Napoleon Intime (1893; Eng. tr., 2 v., 1894) 
Masson, F.: Napoleon and Ms Coronation (1911) 

Napoleon at Home; 2 v. (1894) 

Josephine imperatrice et reine (1899) 

Montholon, C. J. T., Marquis: History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St. 

Helena; 4 v. (1846-47) 
Nicolay, F.: Napoleon at the Boulogne Camp (1907) 
Oman, C. W. C: History of the Peninsular War; 4 v. (1902-11) 
Rosebery, A. P. R., Earl of: Napoleon, the last Phase (1900) 
Rovigo, Due de: Memoirs ; 4 v. (1828) 
Seaton, R. C: Sir Hudson Lowe and Napoleon (1903) 
Seeley, J. R.: Life and Times of Stein; 2 v. (1879) 



I. The Monarchy 

1. The Crown 

a) the King, absolute in fact if not in theory; Lonis XIV and the 
"Divine Right,"- ''L^etat, c^est moi!^^; Bossuet on Kingship 

b) ineffectiveness of theoretical checks upon the royal power, e. g, , 
the Estates-General, the Parlement of Paris; the lit de justice; 
"the King's will is law" 

c) centralization of all political power in the King 

d) practical limitations upon absolutism:- custom, etiquette, pub- 
lic opinion, the court, the church, the burden of government 

2. Councils and Ministers 

a) the Superior Councils:- Supreme; Despatches; Finance and 
Commerce; War; State or Parties; composition and functions; 
enormous powers of the Supreme Council 

b) the Ministers:- Chancellor; Controller-General of the Finances; 
the Secretaries, for Foreign Affairs, War, Marine, and the Royal 
Household 

c) immense importance of the Controller-General — a Secretary of 
finance, commerce, agriculture, internal affairs, public works 

d) the bureaux; government by clerks 

e) the Ministers not a Cabinet; complete dependence upon the King; 
no collective responsibility; no Parliamentary support 

f) the government of France paternalistic, bureaucratic, arbitrary, 
capricious, irresponsible, inefficient 

3. Provincial administration 

a) the provinces (33); pays d^etats stnd pays d^ election 

b) the provincial Governor; an honorary office, with little authority 

c) the Intendant, administrator of the gen^ralite (35 in number); 
large powers, executive, judicial, fiscal, police; the eye and arm 
of the central government 

d) the election and the sud-dSlegue 

e) the Provincial Estates (Brittany, Artois, Burgundy, Languedoc, 
Dauphine, Provence, et al.); limited powers 

4. Communal government 

a) the city government; the mayor (appointed by the crown) ; the 
council (elected); the general assembly 

b) oligarchical character of the city governments 

c) limited powers; supervision of the Intendant; interference of the 
crown; forced redemption of charter rights 

d) village communes; the syndic and the assembly; little or no real 
authority 

e) no real local self-government in France; political impoverish- 
ment of the nation; influence of this fact upon the Revolution 

Lowell, ch. i; Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII, 36-46; Bourne, 19-32; Perkins, France 
under the Beg ency, 300-323; Mathews, Fr. Rev., 1-11; Kobinson and Beard, Bdgs., 
I, 5-8 



II. Finances; Army; Law and Courts 

1. The sources of revenue 

a) the direct taxes: taille (personal tax; arbitrary) ; capitation (grad- 
uated poll tax); vingti^me (property or income tax); corvee 
(forced labor on public works) 

b) inequalities of direct taxation; exemptions and evasions; injuri- 
ous social effects of fiscal abuses 

c) indirect taxes: aides (excise); traites (customs); douanes interi- 
eiires (customs); gabelle (on salt); octroi (on provisions); peages 
(tolls); smuggling; enormous cost of collection 

d) other sources of revenue: the paillette (sale of ofldces); sale of 
privileges; the Don gratuit of the clergy 

e) the royal domain 

2. The financial administration 

a) the rSgie, or royal tax bureau 

b) the "farms"; large profits; corruption and extortion: croupiers 

c) apportionment of the direct taxes; joint liability for the taille 

d) concealment and falsification; the tax system obnoxious, waste- 
ful, inimical to prosperity 

e) confusion, irregularities and fraud in collection and accounting 

f) want of system; no budget; anticipation of the revenue; the 
deficit 

g) the plunder of the treasury; acquits de comptant; pensions; mon- 
opolies 

3. The military organization 

a) the officers: purchase of commissions and of regiments; restrict- 
ed promotion (edict of 1781); excessive numbers; privileges; the 
Calotte (officers' association); military schools 

b) methods of recruiting the army 

c) uniform and equipment; discipline: privations and hardships of 
the service; reforms after 1763 

d) the militia 

e) the navy; improvement under Louis XV and Louis XVI 

f ) influence of the American War upon the French army 

4. The law and the courts 

a) variety of law; the Roman law and the coutnmes; conflicting 
codes; resulting confusion and injustice 

b) the superior royal courts; the Parlements and the Sovereign 
Councils; composition and powers, especially of the Parlement 
of Paris 

c) inferior royal courts; exercise of judicial functions by adminis- 
trative officials 

d) seigneurial courts; high, middle and low justice 

e) ecclesiastical courts; the Canon Law 

f ) the judicial and legal caste; purchase or inheritance of judicial 
offices 

5. Judicial procedure 

a) complexities and uncertainties of the legal process 

b) criminal procedure: the judge as prosecutor; assumption of guilt 
of the accused; torture; denial of counsel; bribes and fees 

c) the criminal code; large number of crimes; savage penalties; 
state of prisons; demand for reform of the code (Beccaria) 

d) inequality before the law; denial and delay of justice; royal in- 
terference-writ of committimus (change of venue) 

e) the lettre du cachet; no writ of Jiaheas corpus 

Lowell, chs. vii, viii, xiv; Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII, 46-52, 66-78; Mathews, 12-30; 
Taine, Ancient Begime, bk, V, chs. ii and iv, passim; Robinson and Beard, Edgs., I, 
225-229 



III. Cleric and Noble 

1. The state church 

a) the established church; Provincial and Diocesan organization 

b) the National Assembly of the clergy; ecclesiastical jurisdiction; 
clerical immunity 

c) the "Galilean idea"; the Four Resolutions of 1682; limits of 
Papal authority in France 

d) the Concordat with the Papacy (1516); ecclesiastical patronage 
of the King 

e) the intolerance of the church; Louis XIV and the revocation of 
the Edict of Nantes (1685); the Jesuit-Jansenist controversy 

f ) legal status of Protestants and Jews in France 

2. The clergy 

a) numbers {c. 130,000) and classes; higher and lower, secular and 
regular 

b) wealth of the clergy; landed property (c. one-fifth of France); 
enormous revenues (c. fr. 180,000,000); tithes and fees; ecclesi- 
astical burdens of the common people 

c) exemption of the clergy from taxation; the Don gratuit; the state 
subsidy 

d) influence of the clergy; offices and sinecures; control of educa- 
tion and of the press; the clerical censorship 

e) life and morals of the clergy: laxity, self-indulgence and irreligion 
common among the higher clergy; the lower clergy generally 
faithful, frugal and decent, but narrow and bigoted 

f) the monastic clergy; decline in numbers; suppression of smaller 
houses; general relaxation of discipline; exclusive and fashion- 
able houses 

g) the clergy and progress: generally hostile to liberalism; rigid cen- 
sorship of the press; commonly the object of scorn and hatred 
among the liberal and enlightened 

3. The nobility 

a) numbers (c. 25,000 families; cf. with English nobility); large 
» number of landless and indigent nobles; ranks of nobility 

b) ways of attaining nobility — by birth, service, office, purchase; 
titled and untitled nobility; antagonism of the "sword" and the 
"robe" 

c) privileges of the nobility: honors and offices (chiefly ceremonial) ; 
military commands; seigneurial rights; exemption from taxes 

d) disabilities of the nobility: excluded from trade and gainful pur- 
suits; dependent upon the King's favor; shorn of political power 

e) limited and petty interests of the court noble; dulness of life upon 
the country estates; the noble a poor landlord 

4. Social life of the upper classes 

a) the court; the military and civil household of the King; enormous 
number of functionaries and servants 

b) the cost of maintenance 

c) the Queen's household; other royal households 

d) court etiquette; publicity of the King's life; the lever, coucher 
and other functions 

e) faction and intrigue at court; activity and influence of women at 
the French court; role of the maitresse du roi 

f ) life in high society: the court; the salon; the family (marriage; 
the education of children); gallantry; amusements; education, 
art and letters 

Lowell, chs. ii, iii, iv, vi; Perkins, France under Louis XV, I, 1-47, 469-490, II, 
339-424; Taine, Ancient Eeginie, bk. I; Camb. Mod. Hist.,\lU, 52-59; Mathews, 31- 
51. 



IV. Townsman and Peasant 

1. The Bourgeoisie 

a) civil and political status; the town charter; corporate rights; ex- 
emptions from taxes and military service; city government 

b) the wealth of the haute bourgeoisie; growth of towns; the houV' 
geoisie the capitalistic class 

c) wealth and political influence; the hourgeois the creditor of the 
state; preference in administrative office 

d) social aspirations of the haute bourgeoisie] resentment at privi- 
lege; purchase of nobility; determination to force recognition 

e) town life: the standard of living; increasing luxury and display; 
education and culture; amusements; domestic life 

2. The industrial organization 

a) the gild system: organization; close corporation; monopoly 

b) government regulation; restrictions and hindrances 

c) the exploitation of labor by the gilds; labor and capital 

d) oligarchical instincts of the bourgeoisie; the political and social 
chasm in the cities 

e) social condition of the city proletariat 

3. The peasantry 

a) numbers, -c. four-fifths of the population; holders of c. two-fifths 
of the soil; large number of small holdings 

b) negligible number of serfs; absence of a rural middle class; effect 
seen in the Revolution 

c) political status of the peasantry; village assembly, but with petty 
duties and privileges; the syndic's duties and powers 

d) land tenure: the franc alleu (free from all feudal dues); tenure 
by concession, (a) infeudatiori (with a relief), (b) censive 

e) incidents of feudal tenure: seigneurial dues and restrictions: re- 
lief, champart or terrage, lods et ventes, banalitS, tolls; the 
peasant and the bailiff 

f ) taxes and tithes: the taille, corvee, tithes; total amounting to 
more than 81% of the gross income of the peasant (Taine) 

4. The agricultural system 

a) backward state of French agriculture (c/. with England) ; neglect 
of the land by the nobility; evils of absenteeism 

b) the metayer system (c. seven-eighths of the land worked under 
that system) ; wasteful and unproductive 

c) restrictions upon the grain trade; internal tariffs 

d) evils arising from seigneurial privileges; the capitaneries, hunt- 
ing privileges 

e) social condition of the peasants; precarious subsistence; lack of 
comforts; illiteracy; crude and narrow life of the village (c/. La 
Bruyere, A. Young, and others) 

f) comparison with other European peasants 

Lowell, chs. xi, xii, xiii (pp. 154-206); Camh. Mod. Hist., VIII, 59-65; Bourne, 
3-18; Taine, Ancient Regime, bk. IV, ch. iii; bk. V, ch. i; Arthur Young, Travels in 
France, 1787-89, 313-332 (Betham-Edwards edn.), 328-344 (Everyman's edn.); Per- 
kins, France under Louis XV, 1,37-47; Lecky, Fr. i^ey., 90-110; Robinson and Beard, 
Bdgs., 1, 138-142, 229-234 (c/. Robinson, Bdgs.. II, 373-380) 



V. The Revolution in Thought 

1. The eighteenth century point of view 

a) the scientific spirit and method; great achievements of science 
in the eighteenth century (Newton, Leibnitz, Laplace, Herschel, 
Reaumur, Lamarck, Lavoisier, Rumford, Priestley, Franklin, 
Linne) 

b) philosophical implications of scientific discovery; changed view 
of man, his nature and his place in the universe; influence of 
Locke 

c) the revolt against authority; rise of destructive criticism (influ- 
ence of Bayle's Dictionary, 1697-1702); rejection of tradition and 
dogma; discrediting of the supernatural; supremacy of reason 

d) prevailing tendencies of eighteenth century thought: skepticism, 
sensationalism, determinism, utilitarianism, latitudinarianism 

e) the century's contribution to philosophical and political theory 
(Locke, Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Hume, Kant, Montesquieu, 
Gibbon, Turgot, Adam Smith) 

2. Montesquieu (1689-1755) 

a) his satire upon the Church and the Monarchy (Lettres Persanes, 
1721) 

b) development of his political philosophy; English influences; 
Locke and Newton; residence in England; close study of the Eng- 
lish constitution 

c) Montesquieu as political historian {Grandeur et decadence des 
Bomains, 1734) 

d) Montesquieu's philosophy of government {L^ Esprit des Lois, 
1748): relativity of political institutions; physical influences in 
political development; proportion and adaptation in laws; sep- 
aration of powers in government; preference for limited monarchy 

e) influence of Montesquieu (c/. constitution of the United States) 

3. Voltaire (1694-1778) 

a) early career; visit to England; marvelous productivity and versa- 
tility; principal works; preeminence in the domain of letters; lit- 

, erary qualities; character 

b) Voltaire as a destroyer of the old order; exposure and denunci- 
ation of follies, shams and abuses, political, social and religious 

c) Voltaire and religion: a Deist; implacable hostility to ecclesiasti- 
cal and dogmatic Christianity {V I^ifame!) ; plea for toleration 

d) Voltaire's passion for justice (Calas, Sirven, la Barre, Lally) 

e) Voltaire as an historian; ideas on politics; preference for limited 
monarchy; Voltaire by nature aristocratic 

4. The Philosophers 

a) Diderot (1715-1784): LesAve'ugles-re\a.i\v\iyoi knowledge and 
virtue; sensationalism; Diderot on "The Sufficiency of Natural 
Religion" 

b) the Encyclopaedia (1751-57, 1765, 1776-77, 1780); Diderot and 
his collaborators (D'Alembert, Condorcet, et al.); liberal spirit; 
scientific methods; difficulties with the government; general posi- 
tions, -Deism, rationalism, sensationalism, liberalism; immense 
influence 

c) Helvetius (1715-1771), De VEsprit; Holbach (1723-1789), Za 
Systeme de la Nature: sensationalism, determinism, utilitarian- 
ism ("Greatest good to the greatest number"), atheism 

d) Condorcet (1743-1794): Condorcet a doctrinaire; his optimism; 
the perfectibility of human nature 

e) Abbe Raynal (1713-1796): Histoire philosophiqtie et politique 
des Indes: demand for an entire new order 



5. Rousseau (1712-1778) 

a) early life and young manhood; character (emotional, intro- 
spective); the Confessions; their credibility 

b) Rousseau the Apostle of Sentiment; his distrust of reason, and 
implicit faith in the feelings 

c) disparagement of civilization as artificial and corrupting; "Back 
to Nature!" {La nouvelle Relo'ise); influence of Rousseau's 
"naturalism" 

d) Rousseau's religion- a theist (the Savoyard Vicar) 

e) his educational theories; Emile, a protest against formal and 
stereotyped education 

f ) the Social Contract (1761): natural rights; civil rights; the social 
compact; sovereignty; law; government; liberty; democracy 

g) Rousseau the prophet of the Revolution; immense influence on 
the Revolution and on the nineteenth century 

6. The economists 

a) the Physiocrats: Gournay; Quesnay {Tahleau Economigue, 1758); 
Mirabeau the elder {L^ Ami des Hommes); Turgot {Reflexions 
sur la Formation et la Distrihution des Eicliesses); Dupont do 
Nemours {PJiysiocratie, 1768) 

b) economic principles of the Physiocrats: the soil the source of 
wealth; disparagement of manufacture and commerce; return to 
the land; single tax, upon the economic "rent," i. e. , the net 
produit; freedom in trade and industry {laisser-faire); the "nat- 
ural right" to labor and to enjoy; enlightened self-interest; the 
state to conserve, foster and educate, as well as to govern, tax 
and police 

c) influence of the Physiocrats {cf. Adam Smith) 

d) d'Argenson (1694-1757): belief in the natural goodness of man; 
decentralization of government; communism; abolition of privi- 
lege 

e) the Communists: Mably (1709-1785); Morelly {Code de la 
Nature) 

f) principles of the Communists: common ownership of land and of 
the means of production; universal, compulsory labor, according 
to strength and capacity; enjoyment of the fruits of labor, ac- 
cording to need; minimum of government 

g) the Communists and modern Socialism 

7. Criticism of the philosophers; their influence upon the Revolution 

a) their enthusiasm for "Nature" and the fictitious "Natural man" 

b) extravagant faith in Reason; disparagement of the emotional 
element in human nature (except Rousseau) 

c) weakness for formulas; tendency to doctrinarianism; impatience 
of scientific inductions; disposition to easy generalization 

d) faulty historical perspective; exaggeration of the political and 
social virtues of the ancients 

e) influence of the philosophers upon the Revolution: conflicting 
opinions; the philosophers not propagandists of revolt, but 
prophets of reform 

Lowell, chs. V, ix, x, xvi-xix; Camb. Mod. Hist., VI, preface, v-xi, VIII, 1-35; 
Mathews, 52-90; Bourne, 33-47; Perkins, France rinder Louis XV, II, 198-205, 425- 
475; Acton, Lects. onFr. Rev., lect. i; Taine, Annient Riiime, bk. iii, ch. iii; bk. IV, 
chs. i-iv, passim; Lecky, Fr. Rev., 2-25, 57-90; Morley, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, 
passim; Rousseau, Social Contract and Emile, passim; Penn. Trans, and Rep. , vol. 
VI, no. 1; Robinson and Beard, Rdgs., 1, 172-199 [cf. Robinson, Rdgs.,11, 380-386) 



VI. Progress ander Absolutism 
The Benevolent Despots 

1. The principles of Benevolent Despotism 

a) the despotic theory of the State; government by "Divine Right" 

b) governing as a duty; the metier du roi; the "first servant of the 
State"; "everything for the people, nothing by the people" 

2. Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786) 

a) political principles; high sense of prerogative and of duty 

b) administrative system, -paternalistic, bureaucratic; suppression 
of local self-government; judicial system; the Code 

c) promotion of agriculture, industry, commerce, colonization, 
public works, roads, canals, buildings, reclamation of lands 

d) mitigation of serfdom on the royal domains 

e) religious toleration; compulsory primary education 

3. Catherine H of Russia (1762-1796) 

a) Catherine's task: backwardness of Russia; illiteracy; no middle 
class; Russian antipathy to foreign influences 

b) relaxing of the rigid system of Peter the Great; larger measure 
of local self-government; reformed legal code 

c) economic measures; material progress under Catherine 

d) amelioration of the lot of the serfs 

e) toleration; liberty of opinion; education and culture 

4. Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790) 

a) attempts at unity and administrative uniformity 

b) humane legal code; influence of Beccaria {On Crimes and Pun- 
ishments, 1764) 

c) abolition of serfdom (Slav provinces); feudal dues lightened 

d) fiscal reforms; economic improvements; abolition of gilds and 
other hindrances to industry and trade; roads; public works 

e) primary education; freedom of opinion and of the press 

f) toleration (1781); removal of disabilities of the Jews; strict con- 
trol of the church; attempt to secularize education 

g) Joseph's reforms over-rapid, extreme, wounded religious sensi- 
bilities; resented by the subject states (Hungary, Belgium) 

5. Benevolent Despotism in other states of Europe 

a) Leopold of Tuscany (1765-1790): administrative and legal re- 
forms; promotion of industry, trade, education, culture 

b) Charles III (1735-1759) and Tanucci in Naples: abolition of 
feudalism; legal reforms; restraint of church; Jesuits expelled 

c) Charles III in Spain (1759-1788): Aranda and Florida Blanca; 
education; the army; revival of commerce; judicial reforms 

d) Joseph I (1750-1777) and Pombal in Portugal: administrative 
reforms; manufactures and trade; education; expulsion of the 
Jesuits 

e) Gustavus III of Sweden (1771-1792); autocratic reform 

f) reforms in Denmark (Bernstorfl), and Baden (Charles Frederick) 

6. Criticism of Benevolent Despotism; its merits and defects 

a) achievements: administrative efficiency; legal and judicial re- 
form; penal reforms; mitigation of serfdom; promotion of ma- 
terial welfare; liberation of trade and industry; restraint of ec- 
clesiastical authority; toleration; public education; better care of 
dependents and defectives 

b) evils: inherent tendency to arbitrary and tyrannical rule; denial 
of the higher rights of citizenship; political impoverishment of 
the subject, inviting political bankruptcy of the state 

Bourne, 48-61; Camb. Mod. Hist., VI, 635-640, 648-654, 682-701, 710-724; Redda- 
■way, Frederick the Great, chs. vi and x; Bright, Joseph II, ch. vi; Hume, Spain, 392- 
411; Stephens, Portugal, 354-372; Robinson and Beard, Bdgs., I, 202-220 



VII. France under Louis XV 
Impotent Despotism 

1. The Regency of the Duke of Orleans, 1715-1723 

a) relief of France at the death of Louis XIV 

b) promise of a liberal regime: character of the Regent; deference 
to the Parlement of Paris; administrative changes; political hopes 
of the nobles 

c) reversal of foreign policj^; alliance with England, against the ag- 
gressive designs of Philip V of Spain 

d) the Jansenist controversy: Quesnel's Neiv Testament .... with 
Moral Reflections (1693); the bull Unigenitus (1713); struggle 
over the publication of the bull; bigotry and fanaticism; perse- 
cution of the Huguenots 

e) the "Mississippi Bubble": financial exhaustion of France; John 
Law's scheme for restoring credit and prosperity; the speculation 
craze; political and social effects 

2. The ministry of Cardinal Fleury, 1726-1743 

a) Fleury 's policy: peace, economy, recuperation, easy rule 

b) reduction of taxes; repair of finances; internal improvements 

c) foreign policy: peace, in conjunction with Walpole (sacrifice of 
the French navy); the Family Compact (1733); the Pragmatic 
Sanction; France and the Polish Succession (1733-38); reversion 
of Lorraine; the Bourbon established in Italy (Parma; Naples) 

d) anti-Jansenist policy; protest of the Parlement of Paris; retalia- 
tion by the government; popular interest in the quarrel 

e) failure of Fleury 's foreign policy; France and the Austrian Sue- 
CGSsion 

3. The "reign" of Pompadour, 1745-1764 

a) Louis XV resolves to "assume the reins of government" ; proves 
aroi faineant', his character,-eternally bored; his amours; politi- 
cal role of the maitresse du roi; intrigue and favoritism 

b) Madame de Pompadour: character ; talents; versatility ; complete 
ascendancy over Louis; shameful pandering to Louis's debased 
sensuality (the pare aux cerfs) ; her extravagance; baneful polit- 
ical influence 

c) France in the war of the Austrian Succession: Fontenoy (1745) ; 
struggle with England in India and America ; fruitless peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) 

d) brief period of recovery, 1748-56: revival of agriculture and trade ; 
vigorous colonial policy ; Dupleix's success in India; repair of 
the navy; financial reforms 

e) the Seven Years' War (1756-1763): the Austrian alliance; war 
with England and Prussia; military inefficiency of France; fa- 
voritism, corruption, insubordination, want of discipline; re- 
verses on land and sea (Rossbach, Quebec, Plassey, Wande- 
wash) 

f) losses by the Peace of Paris (1763): Canada, Nova Scotia, Lou- 
isiana, Minorca 

g) condition of France at the close of the war: chaos and corruption 
in government; shifting ministries; vacillating policy; swift de- 
cline in strength and prestige 

4. The ministry of Choiseul, 1758-1770 

a) character and ability of Choiseul ; ambition to restore the pres- 
tige of France; appreciation of the need of reorganization 

b) restoration of the navy; reorganization of the army; encourage- 
ment of colonization; promotion of industry and trade; liberal 
economic policy ; changes in the corn laws ; the Facte de Famine 
(1768) 



c) religious troubles: persecution of the Huguenots ; attempt to pro- 
scribe the Jansenists (withholding of the sacraments) ; protest 
of the Parlement of Paris (1752-53) ; popular excitement; gen- 
eral hatred of the Jesuits 
d) expulsion of the Jesuits: charges against the Order,-sinister 
political designs, disloyalty, "probabilism," doctrine of "accom- 
modation" (esp. in China), commercial enterprises (Paraguay) ; 
the Lavalette failure; decree of the Parlement against the Order; 
expulsion of the Order from France (1764); dissolution of the 
Order by the Pope (1773) 

e) ambitious and energetic foreign policy of Choiseul: rivalry with 
England; alliance with Spain; annexation of Corsica (1769); 
dispute with England over the Falkland Islands; dismissal of 
Choiseul (1770) 

f ) the ignoring of France in the Partition of Poland (1772) 
5. Suppression of the Parlements (1771) ; omens of revolution 

a) rule of the "Triumvirate" (Maupeou, d'Aiguillon, Terray) ; as- 
cendancy of du Barry 

b) reckless expenditure; ruinous financial expedients; reduction of 
interest ; new taxes ; alarm of the propertied classes 

c) the Parlement of Paris; its claims and pretensions ; repeated op- 
position to the government; increasing aggressiveness 

d) suppression of the Parlements and the Gours des Aides (1771) ; 
creation of Superior Councils and of the'' Parlement Maupeou^ ^ -, 
short-lived judicial reforms 

e) popular protests and remonstrances 

f) inglorious close of the reign: inefficiency of the government; 
profligacy of the court; the plunder of the treasury; financial 
chaos; imminent bankruptcy ; utter indifference of Louis,-"It 
will last my time!" 

g) the rising tide of revolution: economic distress and popular dis- 
content; literary attacks upon the government; satires and pam- 
phlets; formal protests; demand for the Estates-General and 
reform 

Perkins, France under the Regency, chs. i, ix, x, xviii; Perkins, France under 
Louis XV, I. chs. iii (Fleury), xi (Pompadour); II, chs. xvi (Choiseul), xvii (Jesu- 
its), XX {the Parlements), xxii (du Barry), xxxiii (intellectual and social changes); 
Camb. Mod. Hist., VI, 127-133, 162-166, 329-331, 341-360; Lecky, Fr. Bev., 25-56; 
Grant, Fr. Monarchy, II, chs. xix, xx; Mathews, Fr. Rev., ch. vi; Longman, Fred- 
erick the Great, 31-66, 83-174, 175-214, 225-243 (international relations) 



VIII. France under Louis XVI 
Bankruptcy and Abortive Reform 

1. The opening of the reign 

a) Louis XVI: hopes entertained of him ; his good intentions; want 
of resolution 

b) Marie Antoinette: high spirit; want of tact; defiance of French 
conventions; reckless conduct; unpopularity ,-"l'Autrichienne!" 

c) promise of reform ; ministry of Maurepas 

d) reestablishment of Parlement, an impolitic step 

2. Turgot, Controller-General (Aug., 1774 -May, 1776) 

a) Turgot's qualifications, economic principles, and experience; 
his Intendancy in the Limousin 

b) Turgot's problems: debt, deficit, and imperative need of reform ; 
conditions revealed in the Protest of the Cour deft Aides, Yllb 
(Malesherbes) ; popular discontent 

c) Turgot's programme: strict economy, no increase in taxes, no 
loans, restriction of privilege, freedom of industry and trade, 
equitable taxation, local self-government, education, toleration 

d) reform edicts: suppression of the corvee^ abolition of gilds; free 
trade in grain; moderation of taxes; curtailment of privileges 

e) the enemies of reform: the court, the Queen, the privileged, the 
Parlements, the merchants and the financiers; coercion of Parle- 
ment {lit de justice) 

i) Turgot driven from office; despair of the reformers 

3. Necker, Minister of Finances (1776-1781) 

a) Necker a banker; a "business man's programme"; practical 
temper, narrow outlook ; personal weaknesses 

b) Necker's remedy: economy and loans; temporary restoration of 
state credit; advantageous loans; tax reforms 

c) France and the war of American independence; enthusiasm of 
the liberals ; the government drawn into the war against its will ; 
rehabilitation of the navy; timely aid to America 

d) effect of the American Revolution upon French public opinion; 
the glory of French arms of no advantage to the Crown 

e) drain of the war upon finances; the Compte Rendu (1781); 
Necker's motive, -to show that France was still solvent 

f ) excitement occasioned by the Compte Rendu; fall of Necker 

4. Drifting to bankruptcy and anarchy 

a) Calonne (1783-1787): "borrowing to keep up appearances"; 
costly loans ; lavish outlays 

b) incurable purblindness at court: the army edict of 1781,- none 
but noble officers; commoners excluded from Parlement 

c) the "Diamond Necklace affair" (1783-84) ; effect on the Queen's 
reputation 

d) credit exhausted, Calonne turns reformer; the Assembly of the 
Notables (1787) ; an accounting called for; general land-tax re- 
fused ; dismissal of Calonne 

e) Lomenie de Brienne (1787-1788): hopeless struggle with the 
deficit; second Assembly of the Notables; loan approved 

f) opposition of the Parlement of Paris; forced registration of 
edicts; exile; failure of the attempted coup d^etat (1788) 

g) disturbances in the provinces; Provincial Estates; defiant action 
of the Estates of Dauphinc (July, 1788) 

h) recall of Necker; promise of the Estates-General 

Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII, 79-118; Lowell, chs. ii and xv; Mathews, 91-110; Rose, 
Bev. and Napol. Era, 30-35; Bourne, 62-75; Leckv, Fr. Rev., 111-149; Robinson and 
Beard, Bdqs., I, 145-146, 235-250 (c/. Robinson, Rdgs., II, 366-373, 386-400); Penn. 
Trans, and Rep.,\V, no. 5; V, no. 2, 75-153; VI, no. 1, 28-35 



IX. The Estates-General 

1. The elections 

a) nature and functions of the Estates-General; comparison with 
the English Parliament ; inadequacy of the Estates-General as an 
instrument of reform 

b) what was expected of the Estates-General, (i) by the govern- 
ment, (ii) by the people; divergent opinions; popular interest 
in the elections ; flood of tracts and pamphlets ; Mounier, Nou- 
velles Observations; Sieyes, Qu^ est-ce-que le tiers Etat? 

c) the mode of election: the Beglement; baillages and sinischau- 
sies; indirect election in the Third Estate; double representation 
of the Third Estate; indifference of the government; effect upon 
the elections 

d) the cahiers: prevailing uniformity, general moderation, trust- 
worthiness; demands common to all the Orders.-constitution- 
al, hereditary monarchy; Estates-General, with the power of the 
purse; responsible ministry; local assemblies; equitable taxa- 
tion ; reform of financial administration ; equal justice ; guaran- 
tees of personal liberty; acknowledgement of the "Rights of Man" 

e) further demands of the different Orders 

f) personelle of the Estates-General (308 clergy, 285 nobles, 621 
Third Estate) ; lower and higher clergy; the court nobility and 
the country nobility; large number of lawyers and merchants in 
the Third Estate; mediocrity and want of political experience; 
prominent members,- Mirabeau, Mounier, Lafayette, Sieyes, 
Abb<5 Gregoire, Due d'Orleans, Talleyrand, Robespierre 

2. The convening of the Estates-General (Versailles, May 4, 1789) 

a) the opening session ; the 'Ihird Estate irritated by court etiquette 
and social distinctions; disappointment at Necker's report; the 
government without a programme; utter failure of the govern- 
ment to appreciate the significance of the occasion 

b) the question of voting, -par Ordre or par tete? ; the Orders to sit 
conjointly or separately? 

c) the policy of inaction (May 5 - June 12) ; the Third Estate "un- 
able to proceed alone"; futile conferences; the Court's want of 
tact and discretion 

d) the Third Estate organizes (June 12) ; declares itself "The Na- 
tional Assembly" (June 17) ; the Revolution begun 

3. The National Assembly 

a) the Clergy decides (128-127) to join the Third Estate (June 19) ; 
the King resolves upon a Royal Session ; fatal want of courtesy 
to the Assembly 

b) the Oath of the Tennis Court (June 20), -not to dissolve with- 
out having given a constitution to France 

c) the Royal Session (June 23) ; the King proposes reforms and in- 
vites the cooperation of the Assembly; the Assembly ignores the 

King's proposals, refuses to disperse, and declares itself invio- 
lable 

d) 48 nobles, led by the Due d'Orleans, join the Assembly (June 25) 

e) reunion of the three Orders, by order of the King (June 27) ; the 
National Assembly complete 

f ) appointment of a committee on the Constitution, Mounier, chair- 
man (July 6) ; imperative instructions cancelled (July 13) 

Camb. Mod. Hist, VIII, 119-160; Mathews, 111-124; Bourne, 88-100; Stephens, 
Ft. Jiev., I, 9-54, 55-92; Lowell, chs. xx, xxi, xxii; Acton, Lects. on Fr. Rev., lects. 
iii-v, pp. 39-76; Lecky, Fr. Rev., 149-178; Aulard, Fr. Rev., I, 127-145; A. Young, 
'Travels, 149-185 (Betham-Edwards ed.), 121-150 (Everyman's edn.); Anderson, Con- 
stitutions and Documents, 1-11; Robinson and Beard, Rdgs., 1, 248-255 (cA Robinson, 
Rdgs., II, 397-404); Reich, Documents, 399-404; Stephens, Orators of Fr. Rev., passim 



X. Collapse of the Old Regime 

1. Fall of the Bastille 

a) widespread distress; failure of crops; severe winter of 1788-89; 
danger of famine; non-employment; drift of the poor and the 
unemployed to the cities, especially to Paris; relief works 

b) unrest and disturbances in the provinces; bread riots; France in 
a state of "spontaneous anarchy" (Taine) 

c) the conspiracy at Court to get rid of Necker and disperse the 
Assembly ; troops brought up ; protest of the Assembly 

d) mutiny among the Gardes Frangaises 

e) dismissal of Necker (July 11) ; insurrection in Paris 

f ) the storming of the Bastille (July 14) 

g) alarm of the King ; promise to withdraw the troops ; the King 
visits Paris and dons the tricolor (July 17) ; recall of Necker 

h) the first "migration" of the nobles 

2. Insurrection and anarchy 

a) disorder and sedition in Paris; murder of Foulon and Berthier 

b) bourgeois fear of the proletariat ; a civic guard formed ; Lafayette 
and the National Guard ; Lafayette's vanity and ambition 

c) establishment of the Commune of Paris, with Bailly as Mayor 

d) example of Paris followed in the provinces ; communes declared ; 
guards formed; collapse of the royal administration 

e) bread riots and wild disorders in the country; attacks upon 
chateaux, manors, barriers, and gilds; the "Great Fear" 

f ) formation of revolutionary clubs: the Breton Club; the Cordelier 
Club ; the Jacobins ; the Amis des Noirs ; the Palais Royale a 
centre of sedition ; designs of the Due d'Orleans 

g) radical and inflammatory literature; the journalists,- the Jfom- 
teur; Camille Desmoulins, Revolutions de France et de Brabant ; 
Loustallot, Revolutions de Paris; Brissot, Patriate Frangais; 
Barere, Point duJour; Marat, VAmi du People; the "sovereign- 
ty of the people" and the "sacred right of insurrection" 

3. The Assembly 

a) want of parliamentary experience ; self-complacence ; contempt 
for rules and precedents ; organization and procedure ; the Pres- 
ident, the Bureaux, the "call of the Assembly" 

b) disorder in proceedings ; want of leaders and parties ; disposition 
to orate, impatience of debate; the galleries; deputations 

c) effect of the public disorders upon the Assembly 

d) self-immolation of feudalism, — session of August 4-5 ; the King 
acclaimed as the "Restorer of French Liberty" 

e) Declaratfon of the Rights of Man: equality; personal freedom; 
freedom of opinion, speech and the press ; popular sovereignty ; 
universal suffrage 

4. The Revolution captures the King 

a) impatience of the people ; radical proposals ; the plot to capture 
the King 

b) the Court prepares a coup d^etat; Paris to be overawed 

c) banquet to the regiment of Flanders; desecration of the tricolor; 
excitement in Paris 

d) the march upon Versailles ; King and Assembly brought to Paris 

(October 5-6) 

e) the second "migration" of the nobles; resignation of Mounier 

f ) Mirabeau and the Court ; efforts to reorganize the monarchy 

Camb. Mod. Hist,, VIII, 160-180, 183-186; Mathews, 125-149; Bourne, 100-106; 
Dyer and Hassall, V, 36-49; Acton, lects. vi-vii, 77-108; Stephens, I, chs. iv-viii; Au- 
lard, I, 145-160; Anderson, 11-15, 58-61; Robinson and Beard, Edgs., I, 256-267; 
Robinson, Bdgs., 11,407-417 {cf. Penn. Trans, and Bep., I, no. 5, 2-18); Reich, Docs., 
405-432 



XI. The Constitution of 1791 

1. Revolutionary constitution-making 

a) self-confidence of the Assembly; above learning, especially from 
England; weakness for formulae; exaggerated dread of execu- 
tive despotism ; political groups and parties 

b) the debate over the legislature and the executive: rejection of an 
upper chamber (849-89), and of an absolute veto (673-325); 
resignation of Mounier, advocate of the English system ; com- 
mittee on the constitution reorganized, more radical 

c) exclusion of Deputies from the Ministry; Mirabeau's bitterness 

d) abolition of feudalism (March, 1790) and of the gilds; tax reforms 

e) foreign affairs: Nootka Sound affair; war, peace and treaties, 
the prerogative of the sovereign Nation; "No wars of conquest!" 

f) redivision of France into Departments (83), districts and can- 
tons (communes) ; effort to break down regionalism 

2. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy 

a) expropriation of the lands of the Church; issuance of assignats 
(Nov.-Dec, 1789) 

b) dissolution of monastic houses and of the monastic bond; pro» 
vision for the religious (Feb., 1790) 

c) the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (May, 1790): a Bishop to 
each Department; no outside ecclesiastical authority (i. e., the 
Pope) recognized ; ecclesiastical oflficials elected by the whole 
body of citizens; fixed salaries; residence enforced 

3. The Constitution of 1791 (Sept. 3; accepted by the King, Sept. 14) 

a) the legislature: one chamber (745); indirect election; property 
qualification; reeligibility ; control of the purse 

b) the King: "by the grace of God and the will of the Nation"; 
hereditary; inviolable; supreme executive; suspensive veto; 
limited power of appointment; Deputies not to be Ministers 

c) local officials elective; powers of the communes; limited power 
of the district and the Department 

d) elective judges; appeals; jury trials; counsel; legal procedure 

e) army and navy: election of officers; the National Guard; right 
of the citizens to bear arms 

f) defects of the Constitution: weak executive; irresponsible legis- 
lature; dependent judiciary; extreme decentralization; mania 
for elections ; property qualification ; irresponsible, self-com- 
manded army; no checks upon popular passion 

4. Spread of Jacobinism ; beginnings of a counter-revolution 

a) fete of the Federation (July 14, 1790) ; the Provincial Guards in- 
oculated with the Jacobinism of the capital 

b) mutinies in the army and navy, at Nancy, Chateau- Vieux, Brest, 
Toulon; desertions; demoralization of the military forces 

c) emancipation and enfranchisement in the colonies; rising in San 
Domingo; devastation of the colony (1790-91) 

d) protest against the Civil Constitution of the Clergy; religious 
war in the south ; the Confederation of Jales 

e) the oath to the Constitution demanded of the Clergy; the non- 
jurors; predicament of the King 

f) ill-fated attempt of the King to escape; prevented from keeping 
Easter at St. Cloud; flight to Varennes (June 21, 1791); the 
King brought back and suspended from office 

g) the "Massacre of the Champs de Mars" (June 17, 1791) 

Bourne, 107-149; Camb. Mod. Hi-^t., VIII, 180-210; Mathews, 150-181; Rose, 43- 
58; Acton, Jects. viii-xii; Stephens, Fr. Bev. , chs. ix, x, xi, xv; Aulard, I, 161-314; 
Lecky, Fr. Bev., 183-299, passim; A.Young, Travels, 288-311 (Betham-Edwards ed.), 
308-327 (Everyman's ed.); Robinson and Beard, Bdgs., I, 268-287; Robinson, Rdqs., 
II, 417-437 {cf. Penn. Trans, and Bep., I, no. 5, pp. 19-30); Anderson, 15-54, 58-95 



XII. The Legislative Assembly, Sept., 1791 -Sept., 1792 
Radical Republicanism and Foreign War 

1. The Legislative Assembly and the King 

a) the elections: Jacobin gains; causes.-ineligibility of members of 
National Assembly; constitutional qualifications for voting; po- 
litical apathy of the bourgeoisie; activity of the Jacobin clubs 

b) parties and leaders in the Legislative Assembly: the Right 
{Fenillants) ; the Left (Jacobins and Brissotins), Brissot, 
Sieyes, Mme. Roland, Vergniaud (a Girondin) ; the extreme 
Left (later Enrages), Couthon, Robespierre, Danton, Marat; the 
Centre, in the majority, but without definite policy 

c) intimidation from the galleries; the appel nominal 

d) the King, helpless and distrustful ; desire of the moderates to 
support the King; Barnave, Lameth, Malouet, Mallet du Pan 

e) legislative traps for the King: decrees against the Smigrh and 
the non-juring clergy; vetoed by the King (Nov. -Dec, 1791) ; 
confiscation of the estates of the emigres (Feb., 1792) 

2. The Revolution and foreign war 

a) causes of war: challenge of the Revolution to monarchy; border 
troubles,-Alsace ; the Netherlands ; the Smigres 

b) various motives for war: the Brissotins, to embarrass the mon- 
archy; Lafayette, to strengthen the monarchy; the extreme rad- 
icals, a "crusade" against monarchical Europe 

c) the threat of foreign intervention; attitude of the Emperor Leo- 
pold; Declaration of Pillnitz (Aug., 1791) 

d) failure of the Narbonne ministry; the Brissotin ministry 

e) declaration of war against Austria (April 20, 1792) ; military re- 
verses; popular clamor against the ministry 

f) disturbances in the provinces ; Paris threatening; the camp of 
the Federes ; ; abolition of the King's guard ; royal vetoes 

g) fall ol the Brissotin ministry; the Brissotins plot revenge 

h) attack on the Tuileries (June 20, 1792) ; coolness of the King; 
reaction in his favor; the Jacobins redouble their efforts 

3. The Commune of Paris and the Legislative Assembly 

a) the suspension of the Mayor, Petion, by the Department of the 
Seine ; reinstatement by the Assembly 

b) Lafayette's futile effort to save the monarchy 

c) reorganization of the Commune (July 11, 1792) ; establishment 
of a Directory of Insurrection, under Danton; the Sections sit 
en permanence; the National Guard opened to "passive citizens" 

d) manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick (July 27, 1792) ; rage of Paris 

e) storming of the Tuileries and massacre of the Swiss (Aug. 10, 
1792) ; the King suspended, and confined in the Temple; a pro- 
visional Executive Council (Roland, Danton, et al.) ; elections 
to a Convention ordered ; Robespierre steps forward 

f) systematic terrorization; despotic police powers, surveillance, 
special tribunal; impotence of the Assembly 

g) preparations for the elections; wholesale arrest of moderates; 
protests against the Commune; vacillation of the Assembly 

h) the Prussian invasion ; fall of Longwy (Sept. 2) ; siege of Verdun; 
the call to arms 

i) the September massacres (Sept. 2-3, 1792); question of re- 
sponsibility ; Danton's connection with the affair 

Bourne, 150-183; Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII, 211-244; Mathews, 186-206; Dyer and 
Hassall, V, 65-91; Acton, lects. xiii-xv, 193-239; Stephens, Fr. Rev., II. chs. i-iv; 
Aulard, I, 314-367, II, 1-78; Lecky, 314-339, 357-374 (foreign relations, and Eng. opin- 
ion of the Rev.; A. Young, Travels, 332-358 (Betham-Edwards ed.), 344-;S66 (Every- 
man's edn.); Anderson, 54-58, 95-126; Robinson and Beard, Bdgs., 1, 282-283, 287- 
294; Robinson, Rdgs., II, 432-433, 438-445 



XIII. Jacobin and Girondin, Sept., 1 792 - June, 1 793 

1. The Gironde's opportunity 

elections to the Convention; Jacobin methods,-terrorism, "os- 
tracism," "sifting of the electors"; small vote cast, about 8%; 
the Paris deputation, Robespierre, Danton, Collot d'Herbois, 
Camille Desmoulins, Marat, Orleans (l), et al. 
parties: the Gironde (120), Brissot, Buzot, Roland, Rabaut de 
St. Etienne, Vergniaud, Condorcet; the "Mountain" (50), ex- 
treme left; the "Plain" (600), Barere, Sieyes, Gregoire, Barras 
circumstances favoring the Gironde: revulsion of feeling after the 
massacres; election of a moderate mayor of Paris; the Gironde 
controls the organization of the Convention; supreme in Ministry 
weakness of the Gironde: want of principle, definite policy, and 
leadership; possessed courage, lacked resolution, without popu- 
lar support 
e; Hebert and the Fere Duchesne 

f ) abolition of monarchy; the Republic proclaimed (Sept. 22) 

g) the "Crusade against Tyranny"-liberty offered to all oppressed 
peoples (Nov. 19) 

h) progress of the war; conquest of Belgium; aims of Duraouriez 
Trial and execution of the King 

a) the "King's life" as a party issue; policy of the Gironde, and of 
the Mountain 

b) the question of legality: Mailhe ("state necessity"), Lanjuinais 
(for justice), Robespierre (Louis already condemned by the 
"tenth of August") 

discovery of incriminating papers in the iron chest; fears of the 
Girondins 

d) the trial: the charges; counsel (Malesherbes) ; irregularities 

e) votes on the questions of guilt, penalty, and appeal to the peo- 
ple ; the Convention cowed by Paris 

f ) execution of the King (January 21, 1793) ; horror of Europe 

3. The crisis of the Revolution 
Europe against the Revolution; reverses; Roland's retirement; 
Danton's defiance to Europe 

insurrection in la Vendee; for "Crown and Church"; success of 
the Vendeens ; alarm of the Convention 

risings in Lyons, Marseilles, Normandy; riots in Paris and the 
provinces; activity of the clubs 

Danton's heroic policy; rebuffed by the Gironde, he is driven to 
the Mountain for support 

reverses on the eastern frontier; Dumouriez's defection (April 5) ; 
increased powers of the Committee of General Defense; radical- 
calism profits by the general alarm and confusion 
the Representants en Mission; general levy, 800,000 
foreshadows of the Terror: Committee of Public Safety (April 9) ; 
Law of the Maximum (May 3) ; arming of the Sansadlotes {May 
12) ; Law of Suspects (May 13) 

4. Fall of the Gironde 

a) the Gironde's futile attack upon Marat 

b) the Commune denounces the Gironde 
the Committee of Twelve ; arrest, and release of Hebert; Isnard's 
threat of civil war; the Commune demands arrest of the Gironde 

d) the Sansculottes at the Convention (May 31) ; expulsion of the 
Gironde (June 2) 

Bourne, 183-202; Mathews, 207-223; Rose, 70-80; Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII, 245- 
275; Dyer and Hassall, V, 92-123; Acton, lects. xvi-xvii; Stephens, Fr. Bev., II, 
chs. v-vii; Aulard, II, 79-158; Lecky, 386-436 (beginning of war); Anderson, 128- 
163; Robinson and Beard, Bdgs., I, 295-300 {ef. Robinson, Bdgs., II, 445-450) 



XIV. The Terror, July, I 793 - July, 1 794 

1. Counter-revolution and military reverses, July-August, 1793 

a) parties after the fail of the Gironde: Danton, for strong govern- 
ment; Robespierre and the Enrages; Hubert and Chaumette 
(the Commune), for anarchy, atiieism, plunder 

b) counter-revolution: Lyons (industrial distress) ; Marseilles; Tou- 
lon ; Bordeaux ; the Vendee ; symptoms of reaction in Paris 

c) the new Committee of Public Safety: Robespierre, Couthon, St. 
Just, Carnot, Billaud-Varennes, Collot d'Herbois 

d) vigorous policy of the Committee: steps to reduce the rebels; 
Carnot and the War Office 

e) assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (July 13) ; effect on 
the populace 

f ) reverses on the eastern frontier ; surrender of Toulon to the Eng- 
lish; the Jacobins strengthened by these reverses 

g) parting of the ways for the Hebertists and the Dantonists 

2. The Terror 

a) the Law of the Maximum ; the Revolutionary Tribunal ; the sans- 
culotte army; Law of the forty sous; Law of Suspects; the carte 
de surete ; proscription of the Girondins 

b) the government declared "Revolutionary," the Convention made 
permanent, the Constitution abrogated (Oct. 10) 

c) the "Provincial Revolutionary Government" organized (Dec. 4, 
1793) ; despotic powers of the Great Committee 

d) the Terror: the Committee of General Security; Fouquier-Tin- 
ville and the Tribunal 

e) trial and execution of Marie Antoinette (Oct. 16) 

f) destruction of the Girondins, Brissot, Vergniaud et al.; execu- 
tion of Mme. Roland, Bailly, Barnave, Manuel, Orleans 

g) the Terror in the provinces: Tallien; Carrier; Freron; punish- 
ment of Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon 

h) success of French arms in Alsace; Carnot, "organizer of victory" 
i) the Vendee crushed; terrible vengeance (Nantes) 

3. Robespierre, Hebert and Danton, Nov., 1793-April, 1794 

a) Danton advocates strong government and mercy; Robespierre 
not yet prepared to break with Danton, -feared Hebert 

b) Chaumette and atheism ; the Worship of Reason (Nov. 10) ; dis- 
gust of Danton and Robespierre 

c) the Republican Calendar (Nov. 24) 

d) law of the 14th Frimaire (Dec. 4) against H^bertism 

e) Camille Desmoulins and the Vieux Cordelier, advocating a re- 
turn to moderation and clemency ; the popular response 

f) return of Collot d'Herbois and St. Just; Robespierre abandons 
Danton, and determines to remove, first Hebert, then Danton 

g) fall of the Hebertists (March 24) 
h) fall of the Dantonists (April 4) 

4. Triumph and fall of Robespierre, April -July, 1794 

a) Robespierre supreme in Convention, Committee, Tribunal and 
Club ; Robespierre's ultimate aim- a dictatorship? 

b) fete of the Supreme Being (June 8) ; disgust of many of Robes- 
pierre's followers 

c) law of 22nd Priarial (June 10), encouraging denunciation; the 
terrorists terrorized; Robespierre's downfall decreed 

d) fall of Robespierre, 10th Thermidor (July 28) 

Mathews, 224-265; Rose, 80-92; Cmnb. Mod. Hist., VIII, 338-371; Dyer and Has- 
Ball, V, 123-159; Bourne, 202-217; Acton, lects. xviii-xxi; Aulard, II, chs. v-vi; III, 
chs. i-iv; Stephens, Fr. Rev., II, chs. viii-xi; Anderson, 171-206; Robinson and 
Beard, Rdgs., I, 300-308 {cf. Robinson, Bdgs., II, 452-460) 



XV, The Revolution at War with Europe 

1. The breach with Austria and Prussia 

a) main lines of European diplomacy, 1789: the Family Compact 
(Spain-France) ; the Triple Alliance (England-Holland-Prussia); 
Austria; the Empire; Russia; Poland; the Eastern Question 

b) international friction, 1789-1790: Nootka Sound (1790) ; the Bel- 
gian Revolution (1789-1790) ; Convention of Reichenbach (1790) 

c) Austria and revolutionary France: hereditary enmity ; the dynas- 
tic connection; the emigres; party politics; Alsace; Belgium 

d) the threat of intervention; Declaration of Pillnitz (Aug., 1791) ; 
alliance of Austria and Prussia (Feb., 1792) 

2. The campaign of 1792 

a) declaration of war on Austria (April, 1792), and on Sardinia 
(May, 1792) ; manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick (July, 1792) 

b) organization and condition of French army; strength of Allies 

c) the Allies invade France; fall of Longwy; siege of Verdun 

d) the victory of Valmy (Sept. 20, 1792) ; retreat of the Allies 

e) capture of Mainz (Oct., 1792) ; victory of Jemappes (Nov., 1792); 
occupation of the Austrian Netherlands 

f) occupation of Savoy and Nice (Sept., 1792) 

3. The breach with England and Holland 

a) Pitt's policy toward France,-strict neutrality 

b) causes of war: the Austrian Netherlands; opening of the Scheldt 
(Nov., 1792) ; capture of Antwerp; French intrigues in Ireland; 
activities of English Jacobins; French decree of Nov. 19, 1792 

c) declaration of war on England and Holland (Feb, 1, 1792) 

d) war with the Empire, Portugal, Tuscany, Naples 

4. "'93" 

a) Dumouriez's invasion of Holland; defeat at Neerwinden (March 
3 8) ; evacuation of Holland; defection of Dumouriez (April 5) 

b) the summer of disasters: loss of Conde (July 10), Valenciennes 

(July 26), Mainz (July 23); Toulon (Aug. 28) 

c) France at bay: the lei'Se en masse (Aug. 16) ; reorganization 
(Carnot and Prieur of the Cote d'Or) ; new strategy and tactics 

d) turning of the tide; Hondschoten (Sept. 8), W^ttignies (Oct, 
16), Weissenburg (Dec. 26); recovery of Toulon (Dec. 17) 

5. Victory and conquest, 1794-1795 

a) Fleurus (June 26, 1794) ; recovery of the Austrian Netherlands 

b) conquest of Holland (Oct., 1794- Feb., 1795) ; flight of the Stad- 
holder; organization of the Batavian Republic 

c) capture of Coblenz (Oct., 1794) ; the left bank of the Rhine 

d) operations in the Alps; the road to Lombardy opened (1793-94) 

e) repulse of the Spanish invasion (1794-95) 

6. The Naval War 

a) comparison of the English and French navies, 1789: number of 
ships, equipment, personelle, efficiency 

b) rapid demoralization of the French navy by the Revolutionary 
government; suspicion and interference; relaxing of discipline 

c) the war in the Mediterranean: loss and recovery of Toulon (Aug.- 
Dec, 1793) ; feeble and inconclusive efforts of Hotham (1794-95) 

d) the Channel and the Bay of Biscay: cautious tactics of Lord 
Howe; indecisive victory off Brest (May 28-June 1, 1794) 

7. The Peace of 1795 

a) the treaty of Basel, with Prussia (left bank of the Rhine) 

b) peace with Spain (San Domingo) ; peace with Portugal, Naples, 
and minor states ; position of France in 1795 

Camh. Mod. JSTzsi., VIII, 289-305, 398-460, 465-472; Bourne, 150-170, 185-198,232- 
236; Rose, Ilev. and Nap. Era, 64-70, 73-77, 89-92; Stephens, Rev. Eur., 11-14,27-32, 
46-49, 63-67, 77-95, 106-130, 140-151; Acton, lects. xiv and xxi; Mahan, Infl. of Sea 
Power, I, 35-78, 85-106, 122-167, 176-183; Lecky, Fr. Eev., 385-556 (Eng. and France) 



XVI. The Directory, 1 795- 1 799 

1. Reaction from the Terror 

a) the Terror checked: Committee of Public Safety, Tribunal, Com- 
mune of Paris, National Guard, and Jacobin Club curbed; the 
government reorganized 

b) return of moderate deputies; general amnesty; peace with the 
Bretons and the Vendee ; restoration of the Girondins 

c) liberty of worship; popnlair desire for a complete restoration of 
religion 

d) repeal of the Law of the Maximum; confiscation halted ; resump- 
tion of specie payment 

e) Jacobinism proscribed; the "White Terror" in the south 

f) economic distress; paper money and high prices; waste of public 
lands; depression of trade and industry 

g) desperate attempt of the Jacobins to recapture the Convention; 
St. Antoine beaten, the Mountain overthrown; end of Terror 

h) prevalence of royalist feeling; possibility of a restoration; effect 
of the death of the Dauphin (June 10, 1795) 

2. The Constitution of the year III (Sept. 23, 1795) 

a) indirect and limited suffrage ; active and passive citizens 

b) the Corps Legislatif: the Cinq Cents; the Anciens; safeguards 
against legislative despotism; precautions against popular vio- 
lence and intimidation 

c) the Directory, of five, chosen by the Anciens ; powers 

d) the Rights of Man; equality of rank; freedom of press; no state 
religion; clubs prohibited ; property guaranteed 

e) the decrees of Fructidor,-t\vo-thirds of the Convention to pass 
into the Corps Legislatif; revolt of the Sections; Bonaparte and 
the "whiff of grape-shot" (13 Vendemiaire) 

f) the first Directory,- &OMr(5fPo/s, revolutionary, corrupt 

g) parties in the Legislatif: the Constitutionalists and the Revolu- 
tionists; general desire for moderation 

h) wretched condition of the finances; measures concerning finances, 

religion, education, and the Emigres 
i) Babeuf's conspiracy 

3. The Fructidorian coup cVetat, Sept. 5, 1797 

a) the Directory purged of moderates; the Legislatif overawed 

b) law of 19 Fructidor (Sept. 5): elections annulled; political ene- 
mies deported; emigres banished; liberty of press and freedom 
of worship denied ; the Directory usurps all power 

c) persecution of priests, moderates and emigres 

d) establishment of the Republican Religion: d^cadis and files; 
Christianity proscribed; churches converted into "temples" 

e) corruption and tyranny of the Directory: the Legislatif cowed; 
the press muzzled; debts repudiated; bribery and peculation; 
fraud and force in elections 

4. Revolt against the Directory 

a) grounds of discontent: hateful and burdensome taxes; religious 
persecution ; violation of electoral freedom ; shameless corruption 
and immorality, vice and vulgarity 

b) financial and economic condition; deficit; depreciation of as- 
signats ; state of trade and industry 

c) misgovernment and administrative chaos; imminent danger of 
political dissolution; need and desire for a strong hand 

d) legislative attacks upon the Directory; election of Sieyes (April, 
1799), an omen of reform 

Bourne, 218-231, 244-245, 257-258; Mathews, 266-285; Rose, 92-96; Cajyib. Mod. 
Hist., VIII, 372-397, 487-520; Acton, lect. xxii, 331-344; Aulard, III, chs. v-viii, 203- 
892; IV, chs. i-ii, 29-132; Anderson, 212-255 



XVII. The Conquest of Italy and the Rise of Bonaparte 

1. The conquest of Lombardy, 1796-97 

a) Italian enthusiasm for the French Revolution; Revolutionary 
propaganda 

b) the military situation, 1796; the war lagging; weakness ol the 
Austro-Sardinian alliance; disaffection in the French army 

c) Napoleon Bonaparte: parentage; education; course during the 
Revolution; genius; ambition; opportunity 

d) Bonaparte's plan for the Italian campaign; he takes command 
(March 27, 1796) ; instant ascendancy over the army 

e) Sardinia defeated and forced to retire from the war (April 28) 

f) victory of Lodi (May 10) ; entry into Milan; siege of Mantua; 
invasion of the Legations; the plunder of Lombardy 

g) victories of Roveredo, Areola, Rivoli (Sept., 1796-Feb., 1797) ; 
fall of Mantua; treaty of Leoben (April 18, 1797) 

2. Reorganization of northern Italy 

a) terms with the Pope: Avignon; the Legations ; theRomagna; in- 
demnity; art treasures 

b) coercion of Venice (May, 1797), and of Genoa (June) ; forma' 
tion of the Cisalpine Republic (July) ; the Italian republics 

c) treaty of Campo Formio (Oct. 17, 1797): Venice; Ionian Islands; 
the Cisalpine Republic; Belgium; the Rhine frontier 

d) Bonaparte's triumphant return to France; jealousy of Directory 
8. The naval war with England, 1796-98 

a) the Franco-Spanish alliance (1796) ; the English fleet abandons 
Corsica and retires to Gibraltar, leaving the way open to Italy 

b) Jervis and Nelson; victory off Cape St. Vincent (Feb., 1797) 

c) French designs on England and India ; Iloche's futile expedition 
to Ireland (Dec, 1797; mutinies in the English navy 

d) Bonaparte's opinion on an invasion of England (1798) 

e) defeat of the Dutch off Camperdown (Oct.,4797; capture of the 
Texel and of the Dutch fleet (1799) 

f) English conquests in the East and West Indies and in Africa 

4. The campaign in Egypt and Syria, 1798-99 

a) arrogance of France after Campo Formio; dominant position in 
Italy; establishment of the Roman Republic (1797-98); occu- 
pation of Switzerland (1798) ; encroachments on Germany 
(Congress of Rastadt) ; aggressive commercial policy 

b) formation of the Second Coalition, England-Austria-Russia(l798) 

c) Bonaparte and the Directory; the dream of Oriental empire 

d) the expedition to Egypt: seizure of Malta; capture of Alexan- 
dria; battle of the Pyramids (July, 1798) ; organization of Egypt; 
the French savants in Egypt 

e) destruction of the French fleet at the Nile (Aboukir Bay), Aug., 
1798; Bonaparte's perilous position 

f) the Syrian expedition: capture of Jaffa; battle of Mt. Tabor; 
fruitless siege of Acre ; retreat to Egypt 

5. The "18th of Brumaire" 

a) corruption and inefficiency of the Directory; Jacobin despotism ; 
economic distress; military reverses in Italy and on the Rhine 

b) universal discontent; France-, weary of war and of anarchy, longs 
for honorable peace and strong government 

c) the return of Bonaparte (Oct., 1799) 

d) coup d'etat of the 18th of Brumaire (Nov. 9), 1799: the Directory 
overthrown ; the Consuls,-Bonaparte, Sieyes, Ducos 

Bourne, 232-261; Camb. Mod. Hist., VIII, 460-465, 472-486, 553-619, 665-688; 
Rose, Rev. and Nap. Era, ch. vi; Stephens, Rev. Eur., 173-211; .Fournier, Napoleon, 
chs. i-v; Rose, Napoleon, chs. v-x; Lenz, Napoleon, chs. ii and iii; Johnston, The 
Corsican, 18-121; Mahan, Infl. of Sea Potcer, 1, chs. viii and ix; Robinson and Beard, 
Rdgs., 1, 309-323 (c/. Robinson, Rdgs., II, 465-486); Anderson, 255-270 



XVIII. The Consulate. 1799-1804 
Reorganization of France 

1. The Constitution of the Year VHI (1800) 

a) Sieyes' proposals,-a Grand Elector, Conservative Senate, and 
two Consuls; rejected by Bonaparte 

b) the electoral system: universal suffrage; the "lists" 

c) the assemblies: Senate, appointed, continued by cooptation; 
Legislative Corps, to make laws; Tribunate, to discuss projected 
laws; Council of State 

d) the Consuls, three, for ten years, reeligible; the First Consul 
(Bonaparte) supreme; the other Consuls, a "consultative voice" 

e) a constitution of absolutism; silence respecting civil rights 

f) popular acquiescence in the new order (3,011,007-1526); return 
of confidence; rise in securities; restoration of order; "The Revo- 
lution at an end" 

2. The government of the Consulate 

a) the Council of State; five divisions; functions 

b) the Ministers; functions; checks upon power; duplication of de- 
partments; responsibility to First Consul; General Boards 

c) local administration: all officials appointed; extreme centraliza- 
tion of authority; vast power of the prefect 

d) financial administration; the Bank of France (1800) 

e) strong government; espionage; censorship; deportation of sus- 
pects; aversion to republicans; promise of amnesty to Smigrh 

3. The Consulate for Life, 1802 

a) plots (actual and fictitious) against Bonaparte; victories; effect 
upon the Consul's popularity 

b) conclusion of war with England (Peace of Amiens, March, 1802); 
Bonaparte made Consul for Life, "as a signal pledge of grati- 
tude" (May, 1802) ; approved hy pleMscitS (3,500,000-8300) 

c) constitution of the Year X (1802) ; the Consul an autocrat 

d) the Court of the Consul; social revival of Paris; trade and pros- 
perity; internal improvements; the Legion of Honor (May, 1802) 

e) the Cadoudal conspiracy; Pichegru and Moreau; execution of 
the Due d'Enghien (March 21, 1804) 

f) Napoleon proclaimed "hereditary Emperor of the French" (May 
18, 1804); approved hy plebiscite (3,570,000-2569) 

4. The Codes 

a) effects of the Revolution upon French law and civil procedure 

b) Bonaparte and the Civil Code (promulgated March, 1804) 

c) law of the family: paternal power; adoption; legitimacy; sup- 
port; inheritance; guardianship; status of women 

d) marriage and divorce: interests of the family; the parent's right; 
divorce by mutual consent 

e) the law of property: land; contracts; interest; mortgages; debts 

f) civil rights; French citizenship; "civil death"; confiscation 

g) the Criminal Code (jury trial) and the Penal Code (1808) 
h) importance and influence of the Codes 

5. Religious reorganization; the Concordat (July 10, 1801) 

a) the Church and the Government; the dissident priests 

b) situation of the Pope; negotiations Avith the Consul 

c) the Concordat: Bishops; curds; lands and revenues; worship; 
faith; tolerance; "Galilean liberties"; civil marriage; state 
supervision of religion ; the Concordat for Italy 

Bourne, 267-285, 310-316; Rose, Rev. and Nap. Era, 119-124, 133-140; Stephens, 
Rev. Eur., 212-217, 225-232; Camb. Mod. Hist., IX, 1-33, 148-179, 180-190; Fournier, 
chs. vi, viii, ix; Rose, Napol.. I, 245-305, 412-429; Lenz, 195-222; Johnston, The Cor- 
sican, 114-128; Anderson, 270-289, 296-308, 323-342; Robinson and Beard, Bdgs., I, 
324-327 {cf. Robinson, Rdgs., II, 486-489) 



XIX. Bonaparte and the Second Coalition, 1799-1803 

1. The war in Italy and Germany 

a) Bonaparte's foreign policy; the situation in 1799; proffer of peace 
to Austria and England 

b) Moreau in southern Germany; the Austrians pushed back from 
the Rhine 

c) the campaign in Italy; the French on the defensive; siege and 
surrender of Genoa (June 4, 1800) 

d) Bonaparte crosses the Alps (May 15-20, 1800); reinforcements: 
aggressive operations 

e) the victory of Marengo (June 14) 

f) Moreau's successes in Germany; occupation of Bavaria 

2. The Peace of Luneville (Feb. 9, 1801) 

a) armistice in Italy and Germany; peace negotiations; Austria 
temporizes, unwilling to act without England 

b) Bonaparte resumes operations; Moreau's victory at Hohenlinden 
(Dec. 3, 1800); advance toward Vienna 

c) French successes in Lombardy, Tuscany, Naples; effect, to raise 
Bonaparte's terms; Austria's isolation 

d) the Peace of Luneville: line of the Adige; Belgium and Luxem- 
bourg ; Rhine frontier; the Italian republics; the German states 

3. Bonaparte and England 

a) dissolution of the Second Coalition ; isolation of England: Aus- 
tria beaten; Prussia neutral; Russia anti-English 

b) the project of invasion; Bonaparte's plans; difficulties 

c) designs in the East; Egypt ; India 

d) Bonaparte and Paul I of Russia: Malta; the Armed Neutrality 

e) assassination of Paul (March 24, 1801) ; Nelson's victory at 
Copenhagen (April 1, 1801) ; defeat of Russia's Baltic policy 

f) French evacuation of Egypt (1801) 

4. The Peace of Amiens (March 27, 1802) 

a) changed attitude of the Powers ; ambition of Alexander I of Rus- 
sia; Bonaparte's need of peace; France's financial burdens 

b) peace sentiment in England, especially among the mercantile 
classes; Addington succeeds Pitt (March 14, 1801) 

c) the Peace of Amiens: basis of reciprocal restitution; Ceylon and 
Trinidad; Malta; Egypt; Turkey; the Ionian Islands; Naples; 
Portugal; Holland (Orange) 

d) treaties with Prussia, Russia, Bavaria, Turkey 

e) the peace a delusion; unsettled questions; England's dissatis- 
faction with the Treaty of Amiens; Bonaparte's ambition 

5. France and her dependencies, 1801-1803 

a) organization of conquests during interval of peace 

b) Italy: annexation of Piedmont; Genoa; the Cisalpine Republic 
reorganized as the Italian Republic, Bonaparte President; ben- 
efits of Bonaparte's administration 

c) Holland: the Batavian Republic; Holland's decline 

d) territorial changes in Germany; secularizations; paramount in- 
fluence of France in western Germany; impending dissolution of 
the Empire; reform movements in Germany 

e) Switzerland: civil war; Bonaparte's "mediation"; England's 
protest; the Helvetic Repiiblic (Oct., 1802) 

f) the colonies; San Domingo; Toussaint L'Ouverture ; sale of Lou- 
isiana (1803) 

Bourne, 261-266, 286-310; Rose, Bev. and Nap. Era, 124-134; Camb. Mod. Hist., 
IX, chs. iii and iv; Stephens, Jiev. Eur., 216-229; Fournier, ch. vii; Rose, Napol., I, 
chs. xi and xiv; Lenz, 195-222; Mahan, Infl. of Sea Power, II, 41-75 (Copenhagen); 
Johnston, The Corsican, 131-166; Anderson, 290-296; Robinson and Beard, Edgs., I, 
326-332 {cf. Robinson, Edgs., II, 480-486) 



XX . The Zenith of Military Power; 1803-1807 
Austerlitz, Trafalgar, Jena, Friedland 

1. Renewal of the war with England, May, 1803 

a) causes of friction: Malta; the Adriatic ports ; Piedmont; Switzer- 
land; Hanover; Napoleon's belief in his need of war 

b) the projected invasion of England; the Boulogne armament 

c) England's command of the sea; Nelson and Villeneuve; the 
French fleet driven to Cadiz 

d) return of Pitt to power (May, 1804); efforts to form a coalition; 
attitude of Russia, Austria and Prussia 

2. The defeat of Austria, 1805 

a) Napoleon's motives and aims ; his preparedness for war 

b) aggressions in Germany and Italy; effect upon Austria; declara- 
tion of war (Sept. 3, 1805) 

c) coalition of England, Austria, Russia; Prussia neutral,- seduced 
by prospect of Hanover 

d) capture of Ulm (Oct. 20) ; the road open to Vienna; Nelson's 
victory at Trafalgar (Oct. 21) 

e) defeat of Austria and Russia at Austerlitz (Dec. 2) 

f ) treaty of Pressburg, with Austria (Jan. 1, 1806); Venice: Istria; 
Dalmatia; Bavaria (the Tyrol); Wurtemberg (Breisgau); in- 
demnity 

g) Joseph placed on the throne of Naples (March, 1806); the Pope's 
protest 

h) treaty with Prussia (Hanover) ; England's resentment; position 
of Russia 

i) formation of the Confederation of the Rhine (July, 1806) ; end 
of the Holy Roman Empire (Aug. 1) ; abdication of Frances II 
as Emperor (Aug. 6) ; Napoleon Protector of the Confederation 

3. The humiliation of Prussia, 1806-07 

a) Prussia's grievances: French army in Germany ; Hanover; Na- 
poleon's objection to a North German Confederation; execution 
of the bookseller Palm ; national spirit in Germany; Stein 

b) Prussia and Russia; condition of the Prussian army 

c) complete victory over the Prussians at Jena and Auerstadt (Oct. 
14) ; Prussia's military collapse; retreat of the King and Court; 
Napoleon master of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe 

d) the Berlin Decree (Nov.. 21), and the Continental System (c/. 
XXII) ; seizure of the Hansa towns 

4. The defeat of Russia, 1807 

a) the occupation of Poland ; hopes of the Poles 

b) drawn battle of Eylau (Feb. 8, 1807) ; milder tone toward Prus- 
sia; convention of Russia and Prussia (April) ; closer under- 
standing with England (Canning) ; Napoleon's situation 

c) victory of Friedland, over Russia (June 14) 

5. The treaty of Tilsit, July 7-9, 1807 

a) meeting of Napoleon and Alexander I on the Niemen (June 25) 

b) terms with Prussia: territory west of the Elbe; the Polish prov- 
inces; Danzig; indemnity; military occupation 

c) broken and defenceless condition of Prussia 

d) treaty with the Czar: Warsaw; Saxony; Westphalia; Ionian Is- 
lands; Continental blockade, against England; alliance 

e) position of Napoleon at Tilsit 

Bourne, 317-339; Rose, Rev. and Nap. Era, 140-147; Camb. Mod. Hist, IX, 208- 
233, 244-264, 265-293; Stephens, Rev. Eur., 232-250; Fournier, chs. x-xii; Rose, Napoh, 
I, 357-396, 445-468, II, 1-145; Lenz, 223-276; Mahan, Infl. of Sea Power, II, 156-197 
(Trafalgar); Johnston, TJie Corsican, 167-283; Anderson, 374-378, 397-415; Robinson 
and Beard, Rdgs.; I, 337-347 {cf. Robinson, Rdgs., II, 494-503) 



XXi. Organization of the Empire 

1. The Emperor and the Constitution 

a) the imperial title, office and succession; the family of Napoleon 

b) the Senate (nominated); the Tribunate (later suppressed); the 
Legislative Corps; impotence of the assemblies 

c) legislation by Senatus Consulta and imperial decrees 

d) the Council of State and the Ministries 

e) the imperial administrative system; Napoleon's capacity for busi- 
ness; methods of work; tendency to absolutism, especially after 
1810 

2. The imperial court and nobility 

a) the Grand Dignitaries, Grand Military Officers, Civil Grand 
Functionaries 

b) the imperial nobility; ranks and emoluments; the Ducal Grand 
Fiefs; Napoleon's provision for his relatives and servants 

c) Napoleon and the old nobility 

d) the Court of the Empire 

3. The military organization 

a) the levies; classes; the National Guard; foreign contingents 

b) the conscription ; odium of the service ; evasion ; desertion 

c) the drain upon France; anticipations of the term of service; ex- 
tensions of term; the cost of Napoleon's wars, in men 

4. Financial and economic adminstration 

a) condition of the finances, 1804; reorganization and rehabilitation 
after Austerlitz; the Bank of France; the Treasury 

b) Napoleon and the credit of France 

c). taxes and revenues; forced contributions from conquered and 
'dependent states; the domaine extraordinaire; imperial budget 

d) tariffs and duties; the Continental System; effect upon French 
trade 

e) Napoleon and the material welfare of France; industry and agri- 
culture; public works and improvements; growth of Paris; regu- 
lation of labor; solicitude for the food-supply 

f ) increasing hardship and discontent after 1810; the drain of war; 
financial exhaustion; growing deficit 

5. Education and culture under the Empire 

a) the school system (law of 1802); the hjceh; private schools 

b) the Imperial University; constitution and functions; interest of 
absolutism in uniformity; the "Imperial Catechism" 

c) censorship of the press and the theatre; suppression of news- 
papers; Napoleon an enemy to free thought and speech 

d) art and letters under the Empire; the Institute; scientific achieve- 
ments 

6. The Empire and the Church 

a) the Papal consecration of the Empire; coronation of Napoleon 

b) the Pope's protest against civil marriage, divorce, nomination 
of Bishops, Gallicanisra 

c) Napoleon's aggressions in Italy; "Kingdom of Italy"; the suzer- 
ainty of Naples; seizure of Ancona; occupation of Rome 

d) captivity of the Pope (1809-1814) ; annexation of the Papal States 

(1810) 

e) struggle between Pope and Emperor- threat of schism; position 
of the Galilean clergy; popular sympathy for the Pope 

f) Concordat of Fontainebleau (1813); release of the Pope (1814) 

g) alienation of all religions by arrogance and despotism 

Bourne, 400-413; Camb. Mod. Hist, IX, 107-147, 191-207; Fournier, chs. ix and 
xiii, passim; Anderson, 308-322, 342-367, 433-434; Kobinson and Beard, Bdgs.,l, 334- 
337, 355 {cf. Robinson, Bdgs., II, 490-494, 509-510) 



XXII. The Napoleonic Empire and the Continental System 

1. Napoleon and the Czar; from Tilsit to Erfurt, 1807-08 

a) conflicting ambitions and policies: Prussia, Warsaw, Finland, 
Sweden, Constantinople as causes of friction 

b) the isolation of England and the projected conquest of India 

c) the Continental System and the Baltic Question; England co- 
erces Denmark; the Czar annexes Finland (1808) 

d) Austria arms; ominous developments in Spain {v. XXIII) ; ne- 
cessity of a better understanding with the Czar 

e) the Congress of Erfurt (Oct., 1808) : postponement of the Eastern 
Question; agreement in regard to Austria and Turkey ; precari- 
ous nature of the alliance with the Czar 

2. The fourth war with Austria, 1809 

a) Napoleon a menace to the peace of Europe; stirring of the na- 
tional spirit, in Portugal, Spain, Germany, Austria 

b) Austria's motives to war: perilous isolation; Napoleon's aggres- 
sions in Germany; fears for the dynasty (example of Spain) 

c) military reorganization; the Landivehr ; patriotic enthusiasm 

d) early successes of Austria in Italy and Poland; heroic resistance 
of the Tyrolese (Andreas Hofer) ; the Ratisbon campaign 

e) drawn battles of Aspern and Esslingen (May 21-22); critical 
position of Napoleon (Lobau) ; victory of Wagram (July 6) 

f) treaty of Schonnbrunn, or Vienna (Oct., 1809): Galicia; the II- 
lyrian Provinces; indemnity; reduction of the Austrian army 

g) divorce of Josephine (Dec, 1809) ; marriage with Marie Louise 
of Austria (March, 1810) ; birth of the King of Rome ( March, 1811) 

3. The Napoleonic Empire at its greatest extent 

a) the Kingdom of Italy (1805) ; annexation of Venice (1806), An- 
cona (1808), the Papal States (1809), the Italian Tyrol (1810) 

b) the Illvrian Provinces (1806, 1809) 

c) the Kingdom of Naples (Joseph, 1806-08; Murat, 1808-15) 

d) the Confederation of the Rhine, Napoleon Protector (1806) ; the 
Grand Duchy of Berg (Murat, 1806-08; Napoleon, 1808- ) ; the 
Kingdom of Westphalia (Jerome, 1807) ; the Hansa towns (1806, 
1810) ; Oldenburg and the North Sea coast (1810) 

e) the Kingdom of Holland (Louis, 1806-10; annexed, 1810) 

f ) Switzerland, the "Helvetic Republic," Napoleon Mediator (1803) 

g) Grand Duchy of Warsaw, under the King of Saxony (1808) 
h) the Kingdom of Spain (Joseph, 1808-14; v. XXIII) 

i) administration of the Grand Empire; effects of French rule 

4. The Continental System 

a) hereditary commercial rivalry of England and France; the Rev- 
olution and English commerce; origin of the Continental System 

b) Napoleon's Berlin Decree (Nov., 1806) ; British Orders in Coun- 
cil (Jan., 1807) ; the Milan Decree (Dec, 1807); embargo and 
blockade; "denationalization"; disregard for neutrals; search, seiz- 
ure, impressment; the American embargo and non-intercourse 

c) struggle for the Baltic and the Mediterranean; pressure on 
Denmark, Prussia, the Hansa towns, Portugal ; annexation of 
Holland, Oldenburg, parts of Westphalia and Hanover (1810) 

d) the Trianon Tariff and the Fontainebleau Decrees (1810) 

e) contraband trade; smuggling; trade-licenses 

f) distress and ruin caused by the System; political effects; aliena- 
tion of Russia and Sweden (1812) ; the American War of 1812 

Bourne, 340-366, 383-399; Camb. Mod. Hist., IX, 135-142, 294-340, 341-379, 390- 
418; Rose, Bev. and Nap. Era, 184-221; Stephens, Rev. Eur., 250-262, 270-283, 293- 
298; Fournier, chs. xiii-xv, passim; Rose, NapoL, chs. xxix-xxxi; Lenz, 277-318; 
Mahan, Infl. of Sea Poiver, ch. xviii; Johnston, The Corsicav, 224-368; Anderson, 
383-396, 421-433; Robinson and Beard, Edgs., I, 346-355 (cf. Robinson, Bdgs., II, 
503-514) 



XXIii. The Revolt of the Nations 
Spain, Russia, Prussia 

1. The invasion of the Spanish Peninsula 

a) the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Spain, to partition Portugal 
(Oct., 1807) ; invasion of Portugal; England's interest in Portugal 

b) treacherous seizure of Spanish fortresses 

c) dissensions in the Spanish royal family; Napoleon's intervention; 
abdication of Charles IV; renunciation of Ferdinand; the crown 
of Spain conferred upon Joseph Bonaparte ; promises of reform 

d) rising of the Spanish; the Dos Mayo; organization oi juntas] the 
priests and the insurrection; guerilla warfare 

2. The war in the Peninsula, 1808-11 

a) capitulation of Dupont at Baylen (June, 1808) ; siege of Saragos- 
sa ; rising of Catalonia 

b) English intervention; French defeated at Vimiero (Aug. 21) ; 
Convention of Cintra (Aug. 30); evacuation of Portugal 

c) Napoleon in Madrid ; pursuit of Sir John Moore ; battle of Corun- 
na (Jan., 1809) 

d) Wellington's return to Portugal; battle of Talavera (July, 1809) 

e) French occupation of Catalonia and Andalusia (1809) 

f ) Massena's advance toward Lisbon; repulse at Busaco; the Torres 
Vedras lines (Nov., 1810- March, 1811); retreat from Portugal 

g) French successes in Catalonia (Tortosa, Tarragona, Valencia); 
inconclusive operations in the south and west (Badajoz, Cuidad 
Rodrigo, Albuera) ; apparent deadlock at the close of 1811 

3. The French driven from the Peninsula, 1812-14 

a) Napoleon's difficulties: extended area of war; depleted forces; 
Spanish guerillas ; the Russian campaign 

b) campaign of 1812: Wellington captures Cuidad Rodrigo and 
Badajoz; French defeated at Salamanca (July, 1812) ; forced to 
fall back on Burgos and Valencia 

c) Vittoria (June 21, 1813); Joseph quits Spain 

d) the battles of the Pyrenees (July -Aug., 1813) ; fall of Pampelu- 
na and San Sebastian; battle of Toulouse (March 24, 1814) 

e) causes of Napoleon's failure; influence of the Spanish war upon 
his other undertakings 

4. The Russian campaign, 1812 

a) rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance; causes: Prussia, Poland, 
Turkey, the Continental System, the Austrian marriage 

b) Czar's threat to revive the Kingdom of Poland; Napoleon's 
preparations for war; the Grand Army; the Czar makes peace 
with Turkey and Sweden; understanding with England 

c) the "Second Polish War": Napoleon's advance; lukewarmness 
of the Poles 

d) Napoleon's change of plans; the line of march,- Kovno, Vilna, 
Vitebsk, Smolensk, Borodino, Moscow 

e) retreat of the Russians ; avoidance of battle ; devastation of the 
country; difficulties of the French ; heavy losses 

f ) Napoleon's delusion as to dictating peace from the enemy's cap- 
ital ; the Czar's appeal to religious fanaticism 

g) battle of Borodino (Sept. 7) ; Moscow (Sept. 15-Oct. 9) ; burn- 
ing of the city; Napoleon's fatal delay 

h) horrors and hardships of the retreat ; the crossing of the Beresina; 

Napoleon abandons the army and returns to Paris (Dec. 18) 
i ) complete ruin of the Grand Army 



5. The regeneration and reorganization of Prussia 

a) Prussia's demoralization and degradation ; effects of the system 
of Frederick the Great; the heavy penalty of defeat 

b) the call to repentance and reform ; Fichte's Beden (1807);. ap- 
peal to the people 

c) patriotism and education; Wilhelm von Humboldt and the 
University of Berlin (1810) ; University of Breslau (1811) ; the 
foundation of the state to be relaid in moral and intellectual 
force 

d) the Tugendbund 

e) patriotism and literature; Arndt, Korner, Schill, Kleist 

f ) entrance of Stein into the Ministry (Oct., 1807) ; reform of the 
Cabinet system 

g) abolition of serfdom; removal of class restrictions 

h) military reorganization; Scharnhorst; Gneisenau; the "shrinkage 

system"; universal military service 
i) extension of self-government, local and municipal 
j) Napoleon and Stein; confiscation of estates; order for arrest; 

jflight of Stein (Jan., 1809) ; Stein in Russia 

Bourne, 349-357 (Spain), 414-428 (Russia), 337-382 (Prussia); Camb. Mod. Hist., 
IX, 428-482 (Spain), 483-505 (Russia), 324-340 (Prussia); Rose, Rev. and Nap. Em, 
220-268; Stephens, Mev. Eur., 263-270, 275-276, 289-307; Fournier, ch. xv,p'i3sim; ch. 
xvi; Rose, Napol., ahs. xxviii, xxix, xxxi, xxxii, xxxiv; Lenz, chi. vi and y'\\ , passim', 
Johnston, The Corsican, 304-368; Robinson and Beard, Bdgs., I, 352-362 {cf. Robin- 
ton, Bdgs., II, 514-524) 



XXIV. The War oi Liberation. 1813-1814 

1. The rising of Prussia 

a) effect of the Russian disaster; hopes of Germany; hesitation of 
the princes; need of allies; secret defection of Austria and Prussia 

b) eagerness of the people for war; the King's distrust of popular 
movements; exertions of Stein; the Landwehr and Landsturm 

c) alliance with Russia; declaration of war; the summons to the 
Nation,-"JLw mein VoW^ (March 17, 1813); universal response 

d) Napoleon's preparations: overtures to Austria; diminished re- 
sources; inferior quality of his army; the forces of the Allies 

e) the French retire from the Vistula and the Oder to the Elbe 

f ) the first Saxon campaign: victories of Ltitzen (May 2) and Baut- 
zen (May 20) ; Bliicher and the Army of Silesia 

g) the Armistice of Plaswitz (June 4- Aug. 10) ; Convention of Reich- 
enbach,- Austria, Russia, Prussia (June 17); Austria's terms; 
Metternich's diplomacy; England and Sweden join the Allies 

2. Leipsic, the "Battle of the Nations" 

a) vacillation and irresoluteness of Napoleon; disaffection among 
his generals ; low morale of the army 

b) Bliicher's defence of Silesia; victory of the Katzbach (Aug. 26) 

c) Ney's attempt upon Berlin; defeat at Gross-Beeren and Denne- 
witz; consequent loss of Hanover and northwestern Germany 

d) defeat of the Austrians at Dresden (Aug. 26-27); failure to fol- 
low up the advantage; victory of the Allies at Kulm (Aug. 30) 

e) the Allies cross the Elbe (Oct. 3) ; defection of Bavaria (Oct. 8); 
Napoleon retires upon Leipsic 

f) the "Battle of the Nations" (Oct. 16-19); rout of the French 
army; retreat beyond the Rhine 

3. The invasion of France 

a) collapse of the Grand Empire; dissolution of the Confederation 
of the Rhine ; rising of the Dutch and the Italians ; desertion of 
Murat 

b) the Allies and France: divided counsels ; the Proposals of Frank- 
furt,-offerof the "Natural Frontiers"; Napoleon's vacillation 

c) the Allies cross the frontier; Napoleon's appeal to France; meagre 
results of the conscription; want of men and of money 

d) the Conference at Chatillon (Feb. 5, 1814) ; offer of the fron- 
tiers of 1792 ; rejected by Napoleon 

e) return of Napoleon's energy and decision; his masterly strategy; 
defeat of Blticher (Feb. 10-14); retreat of the Austrians; dis- 
sensions among the Allies 

f ) Blticher resumes the offensive; Treaty of Chaumont (March 9),- 
the Allies to prosecute the war to the end ; the Bourbon pro- 
claimed in Bordeaux (March 12) 

g) Napoleon's desperate attempt to defend the Capital; entry of the 
Allies into Paris (March 31) 

4. The abdication of Napoleon 

a) Talleyrand and the Allies; proclamation of a Provisional Gov- 
ernment (April 1) ; Decree of Deposition (April 2); Restoration 
of the Bourbon 

b) acquiescence of Paris; desertion of Marmont 

c) abdication of Napoleon (April 6) ; Treaty of Fontainebleau 
(April 11), -sovereignty of Elba, Imperial title, revenue, pro- 
vision for family 

Bourne, 429-445; Camh. Mod. Hist., IX, 506-559; Rose, Bev. and Nap. Era, 263- 
318; Stephens, Bev. Eur., 307 -SS5; Fournier, ch. xvii; Rose, Napol., chs. :&xxm- 
xxxvii; Lenz, ch. viii; Johnston, The Corsican, 369-445; Anderson, 436-451; Robinsoa 
and Beard, Bdgs., I, 363-367 {ef. Robinson, Bdgs., II, 522-525) 



XXV. Waterloo 

1. The first Restoration 

a) return of Louis XVIII; first Peace of Paris (frontiers of 1792) 

b) the Charter; insistence upon royal prerogative 

c) attempt to restore the old order: reestablishment of the Church; 
return of the emigre nobility 

d) discontent with the Restoration: Bourbon subservience to Eng- 
land ; fear for land-titles ; arrogance of the imigres ; alienation 
of the army 

e) dissensions among the Allies at the Congress of Vienna 

2. The Hundred Days 

a) Napoleon at Elba; return to France (March 1, 1815); loyalty of 
the army; indifference of the populace; flight of Louis XVIII 

b) the promise of liberal government: Napoleon renounces war and 
conquest,-" Peace and liberty" henceforth his aim 

c) reorganization of the government; Liberal support (Carnot; 
Constant) 

d) the Acte Additionel (April 22), -a reluctant and partial conces- 
sion; Napoleon still the despot; the Champ de Mai (June 1) 

e) apathy and suspicion of France; election of a Liberal Chamber; 
the army alone loyal, the nation weary of military despotism 

3. Waterloo 

a) the Act of Outlawry, by the Allies (March 13) ; renewal of the 
Treaty of Chaumont 

b) futile attempts of Napoleon to negotiate with the Allies 

c) difficulties of Napoleon's position: the treasury low; the army 
small and ill-officered; France distrustful; indifferent response 
to the call to arms 

d) the Allies and France.-Napoleon, not France, the enemy 

e) advance of the Allies; cooperation of Wellington and Blticher; 
Napoleon forced to take the offensive 

f) Bllicher's reverse at Ligny; Ney checked at Quatre-Bras; Blticher 
reforms at Wavre; Grouchy's vain pursuit of the Prussians 

g) Waterloo (June 18, 1815): Napoleon's delay in attacking; the 
cavalry charges; the British squares; timely arrival of Blticher; 
rout of the French army 

4. St. Helena 

a) second abdication of Napoleon (June 22) 

b) entry of the Allies into Paris (July 6) ; flight of Napoleon; failure 
to escape; surrender to the English 

c) the deportation to St. Helena 

d) Napoleon at St. Helena: arrangements for his safe-keeping; re- 
lations with Sir Hudson Lowe; complaints of ill-treatment 

e) Napoleon's Memoirs; their credibility; seeds of the Napoleonic 
Legend; death of Napoleon (May 5, 1821) 

5. The man and his work 

a) exhaustless energy; untiring industry; knowledge of men; amaz- 
ing intuition; idealism; insatiable ambition; want of principle 

b) services to France: the "heir of the Revolution"; "closed the 
abyss of anarchy"; established order, security, law; equality 

c) Napoleon and Europe: the destroyer of mediaevalism; the herald 
of nationalism; gave the impulse to consolidation; the forerunner 
of modern Europe 

Bourne, 446-465; Camb. Mod. Hist., IX, 555-575, 616-645, 756-771; Rose, Eev. and 
Nap. Era., 318-361, 369-371; Stephens, Bev. Eur., 336-362; Fournier, chs. xviii-xx; 
Rose, Napol., chs. xxxviii-xlii; Lenz, ch. ix; Johnston, The Corsican, 446-508; Ander- 
eon, 451-482; Robinson and Beard, Rdgs. , I, 367-371 {cf. Robinson, Rdgs. , II, 525-529) 



